Panorama Guide to Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Materials: Working Principles, Materials Map, and Selection Navigation (incl. Tables 1–4)

From smartphones and laptops to electric vehicles and grid-scale storage, nearly every “use electricity anytime, anywhere” experience depends on one capability: reliably store electrical energy, then release it on demand. Lithium-ion batteries became the mainstream because they simultaneously deliver high energy density, rechargeability, and scalable manufacturing. The official statement for the 2019 Nobel Prize in Chemistry described this technology as one of the key innovations that “laid the foundation for a wireless, fossil fuel–free society.” What determines a battery’s energy, lifetime, safety, and cost often comes down to something very concrete: the electrode materials.

How does a lithium-ion battery work?

Think of a battery as a device where ions travel inside while electrons travel through an external circuit:

1. Inside the cell: the electrolyte/separator allows Li⁺ to shuttle back and forth.
2. Outside the cell: electrons are “forced” to flow through the external circuit to power the device.
3. At both ends: there are two electrodes (commonly called anode/negative and cathode/positive), which act as lithium “storage sites.”

This division of labor is essential: ions move charge internally, while electrons do work externally. Therefore, the cell’s voltage and current fundamentally come from the difference in how strongly the two electrode materials “attract” lithium and electrons—i.e., the electrochemical potential difference. In essence, cell voltage is the difference in lithium chemical potential / electrode potential between the two electrodes.

Note: In academic electrochemistry, anode/cathode can swap depending on whether the cell is charging or discharging. In engineering practice, however, people often fix the naming by the discharge state: the negative electrode is called the anode, and the positive electrode the cathode. In the strict electrochemical definition, anode = electrode where oxidation occurs, cathode = electrode where reduction occurs—so they do indeed switch between charge and discharge (while engineering terminology typically keeps the labels fixed).

What exactly do we mean by “electrode materials”?

An electrode is more like a composite functional film, and it usually includes at least:

1. Active material: the main phase responsible for reversible lithium storage/release (sets capacity, voltage plateau, etc.).
2. Conductive additive (e.g., carbon black): builds electronic pathways.
3. Binder (e.g., PVDF): glues particles together and firmly adheres them to the metal foil.
4. Current collector (Cu foil / Al foil): efficiently gathers electrons into the external circuit.

Industrially, the active material + conductive additive + binder are mixed into a slurry, coated onto the current collector, then dried and calendered—one of the most classic electrode manufacturing routes.

So when we say “electrode materials,” it can mean the active-material family in a narrow sense, but in engineering contexts it often refers broadly to the entire electrode system built around the active material.

The core action of lithium-ion batteries: why “insertion/extraction” (intercalation/deintercalation)?

A typical lithium-ion battery is called a “rocking-chair battery”: during charge/discharge, Li⁺ shuttles through the electrolyte between cathode and anode, while electrons are forced to go through the external circuit to deliver energy (discharge) or are pushed back by an external power source to complete charging.

In most commercial systems, the active materials on both electrodes provide a reusable host structure. This is most typical for intercalation compounds such as layered/spinel/olivine materials and graphite (all classic insertion hosts; alloying/conversion systems undergo much more dramatic structural rearrangements). Li⁺ can reversibly enter and leave lattice sites/channels inside the material—this is insertion/extraction (often written as insertion/extraction, and also commonly grouped as intercalation/deintercalation; for layered materials like graphite, “intercalation” is especially typical).

By contrast, lithium-metal batteries rely on lithium plating/stripping on the anode surface. In lithium-ion batteries, if lithium plating occurs under low temperature or overly fast charging, it is generally considered an undesired side reaction and a safety risk.

An intuitive analogy:

1. The cathode and anode are like two “parking lots,” Li⁺ are the “cars,” the electrolyte is the “road,” and the separator is a gate that lets Li⁺ pass but blocks electrons.
2. During charging, an external power source “pushes” electrons to the anode side; Li⁺ also leaves the cathode, crosses the electrolyte, and is “received” by the anode material (insertion). During discharge, the process reverses.
3. What it means for a “well-designed parking lot”: smooth pathways (fast diffusion → good rate / easier fast charge), stable structure (small volume/phase changes → longer cycle life), and more controllable interfaces (fewer side reactions → safer and longer-lasting).

Milestones: how lithium-ion batteries were built step by step

Lithium-ion batteries did not appear overnight—they were assembled through several key materials breakthroughs:

1. 1970s: The intercalation-electrode route was validated. Whittingham at Exxon advanced rechargeable lithium systems featuring TiS₂ intercalation cathodes, establishing the core idea of reversible Li⁺ insertion into solid host structures.
2. 1980: High-voltage cathodes emerged. Goodenough’s team proposed layered oxide cathodes (a classic example: LiCoO₂), pushing cell voltage to about the 4 V class and laying the foundation for high energy density.
3. 1985: Safer carbon anodes made the system commercially feasible. Yoshino replaced lithium metal anodes with carbon materials (e.g., petroleum coke), improving safety and enabling commercial viability.
4. 1991: Commercialization reached the mass market. Sony brought lithium-ion batteries to market based on carbon anodes + layered oxide cathodes, followed by continuous iteration toward higher energy, longer life, lower cost, and better safety.
5. 1990s–present: Materials families expanded. After graphite anodes and higher-voltage systems matured, cathodes diversified into spinel (e.g., LiMn₂O₄) and olivine (e.g., LFP) routes, balancing energy density, safety, and cost in different ways.

A full-map framework for electrode materials: position × lithium-storage mechanism

By position: cathode materials vs anode materials

Cathode (cathode active material)

1. The cathode largely determines the operating voltage (more precisely, cell voltage comes from the potential difference between cathode and anode), thus strongly influencing energy density. Energy density is determined by voltage × usable capacity. In real cells, which side becomes the “limiting end” depends on N/P design, rate targets, and the materials system. Many high-energy designs are indeed cathode-limited, but this is not a universal rule (in some designs, anode initial efficiency, polarization, or lithium plating can be equally hard constraints).
2. Cathode structural/chemical stability also affects safety (thermal stability, oxygen release / side-reaction tendency) and cost (resources and processing tied to Ni/Co/Mn/Fe/P, etc.).
3. Cathodes also face an “interphase” issue: at higher voltages, the electrolyte more readily undergoes oxidative decomposition on the cathode surface, forming/evolving a cathode electrolyte interphase (CEI). CEI can sometimes provide passivation protection, but it may also thicken with cycling—raising impedance, generating gas, and promoting transition-metal dissolution. This is especially critical for high-nickel cathodes and high-voltage systems.

Anode (anode active material)

1. The anode often more directly impacts rate capability / fast-charging, low-temperature performance, first-cycle efficiency, and cycle life. A key reason is that the anode operates at low potential, which can reach the reductive stability limit of the electrolyte. Once the electrolyte is reduced and decomposes, it forms a passivation film on the anode that allows Li⁺ transport while trying to block further electron “leakage” reactions—this is the SEI (solid electrolyte interphase). SEI formation makes the battery stable and usable, but it continues to evolve during cycling, consuming active lithium and electrolyte—making it a major contributor to capacity fade and resistance increase.
2. A typical example: graphite anodes often show first-cycle irreversible capacity (low initial coulombic efficiency). A large fraction comes from electrolyte reduction on graphite during the first charge and the initial formation of the SEI, which consumes lithium.

By lithium-storage mechanism: how is lithium actually stored?

1) Insertion/extraction (Insertion; often grouped as Intercalation/Deintercalation)

In one sentence: lithium enters/leaves lattice sites/channels while the host framework remains as intact as possible.

1. Mainstream commercial cathodes: layered oxides (LCO/NCM/NCA), spinels (LMO), and polyanion/phosphate cathodes (LFP, etc.).
2. Typical anodes: graphite, LTO (Li₄Ti₅O₁₂), etc. LTO is often called a “zero-strain” insertion material because its small volume change favors fast charging and long cycle life.

2) Alloying

In one sentence: lithium forms an alloy with the material—effectively storing lithium in a new phase/structure.

1. Representative: silicon (Si) (also Sn, Sb, etc.).
2. Advantage: very high theoretical capacity. Cost: fully lithiated silicon can expand by >300%, leading to pulverization, loss of electronic contact, and repeated breaking/reforming of interphases—creating major lifetime challenges.

3) Conversion

In one sentence: more thorough bond rearrangement occurs (e.g., transition-metal oxides/sulfides are “converted” into metal nanoparticles + Li₂O/Li₂S, etc.).

1. Potential: high theoretical capacity and rich material choices.
2. Challenges: complex reaction pathways, large volume/interfacial changes, and often more severe capacity fade and side-reaction control issues than insertion systems.

Tip: Mechanisms are not necessarily mutually exclusive. For example, SiOₓ and some sulfide/oxide systems often exhibit mixed behavior such as “conversion + alloying/insertion.”

Material metrics ≠ cell performance: three “gaps” from theoretical capacity to cell energy

Why “very high theoretical capacity” doesn’t necessarily mean higher cell energy — the three gaps from materials metrics to cell-level metrics

Theoretical specific capacity, plateau voltage, and cycle life listed in datasheets are largely upper bounds at the material level. Once you move to a real cell, energy density and lifetime are often separated by three factors:

1. N/P design: who becomes the limiting side is not determined by material numbers alone

In a cell, the capacities of the cathode (N) and anode (P) are not simply “added”; they must be balanced with safety margins. The anode usually keeps some excess capacity to avoid lithium plating and to accommodate fast charging and low-temperature operation. Therefore, even if an anode has extremely high theoretical capacity, the cell may not allow it to be “fully utilized.”

2. Compaction density / electrode architecture: volumetric energy often depends on “how much you can pack in”

With the same material, differences in particle morphology, porosity, coating, and calendaring change the electrode’s compaction density and electronic/ionic pathways:

1. Denser packing → volumetric energy may increase, but ion transport becomes harder and rate capability worsens.
2. Larger pores → better rate performance, but volumetric energy suffers.
3. In short: to turn “material capacity” into “cell energy,” you must first turn it into an electrode structure that is manufacturable and transport-efficient.

3. Lithium loss and initial coulombic efficiency: part of the lithium inventory is “lost” in the first charge

The cyclable lithium in a cell is like an “inventory.” In the first cycle—especially on the anode side—SEI formation and electrolyte decomposition consume lithium, lowering the initial coulombic efficiency (ICE). Once this lithium is “locked,” the upper limit of usable capacity in subsequent cycles is reduced.

This is also why high-capacity systems such as silicon or conversion-type anodes often rely more heavily on interphase engineering, electrolyte/additive optimization, and even prelithiation / lithium-compensation strategies to “replenish the inventory.” In other words, a high theoretical capacity paired with high lithium loss may still lead to disappointing usable cell capacity.

Summary: Material metrics give an “upper bound,” but cell performance depends on whether balancing (N/P) + electrode structure (compaction/porosity/transport) + cyclable lithium inventory (ICE/lithium loss) can all work together in practice.

Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Materials Selection Map + Representative Product Classification Tables

(Active Materials / Conductive & Binder Slurry-Making / Current Collectors & Interfacial Coatings / Upstream Precursors)

Lithium-Ion Battery Electrode Materials — Selection Navigation Map

What you are doing / what problem you are encountering	Which table to check first	Why start here	What you typically also need to check next
Building or benchmarking a cell chemistry (choosing the “main” cathode/anode active material) to set the baseline for capacity, rate capability, and lifetime	Table 1 — Electrode Active Materials	Active materials determine energy density, operating voltage plateau, bulk diffusion and structural stability; they are the primary “performance bottleneck” that sets the upper limit	Usually also check Table 2 — Formulation & Slurry-Making (conductive/binder/solvent determine whether an electrode can be made and how large impedance will be)
You have selected the main cathode/anode material, but cannot make a good electrode: poor dispersion, coating cracks, powder shedding, weak adhesion, high internal resistance	Table 2 — Electrode Formulation & Slurry-Making	These issues are usually a combined problem of “conductive network + binding/rheology + solvent system”; starting from formulation and processing materials is most effective	Often go back to Table 1 (confirm particle type/size compatibility), and if the interface needs to be more stable, check Table 3 — Current Collectors & Interfacial/Coating Materials
Goal is higher rate capability / lower polarization (voltage drop at high rate, discharge plateau collapse, high resistance) by improving electronic pathways	Table 2 — Formulation & Slurry-Making (start with the conductive-additive section)	Rate limitations often come from electron/ion transport; the conductive additive system (carbon black/CNT/graphene/porous carbon) determines conductive-network efficiency and electrode pore structure	Also check Table 1 (different active materials have different rate-capability windows), and if coating/interface stabilization is needed, check Table 3
Fast capacity fade, swelling/gassing or obvious side reactions; suspect unstable interfaces (high voltage, metal dissolution, unreliable SEI/CEI)	Table 3 — Current Collectors & Interfacial/Coating Inorganics	Al₂O₃/TiO₂/AlF₃/LiNbO₃, etc. are commonly used as cathode/separator coatings and interfacial layers to first address “side reactions / interface runaway”	Still need Table 2 (binder/solvent system affects interface and residual solvent), and sometimes Table 1 (the intrinsic voltage/stability boundaries of the material system)
Building lithium-metal / half-cell controls (evaluate anode specific capacity and initial efficiency, or for lithium-metal battery direction)	Table 1 — Electrode Active Materials (lithium-metal anode entries)	Counter electrode / lithium metal directly determines test configuration and comparability	Usually also check Table 2 (anode formulation/binder system drives ICE and cycling differences) + Table 3 if an interfacial layer is needed
Synthesizing cathode materials / precursor co-precipitation / dopant ratio design (upstream route); need lithium source, Ni/Co/Mn sources, phosphate source, etc.	Table 4 — Upstream Precursors: Metal Salts & Lithium Sources	This is the core “raw materials” table for synthesis: lithium sources and transition-metal salts determine stoichiometry, impurities, and batch-to-batch consistency	After synthesis, electrode implementation always returns to Table 1 (material type) + Table 2 (electrode fabrication)
You already have cathode/anode materials but want route comparisons: does the same material behave differently with different lithium sources or different metal-salt purity grades?	Table 4 — Upstream Precursors: Metal Salts & Lithium Sources	Purity grade (battery-grade vs general-grade) and impurities can affect defects, residual alkali/salts, and interfacial side reactions	Verification must return to Table 1 (same material, different batch performance) + Table 3 (interface-stabilization options)
Establishing an “engineering baseline” electrode: first make the process work and produce reproducible data, then optimize step by step	Sequence: Table 1 → Table 2	Define the main material first (chemistry baseline), then use binder/conductive/solvent choices to make electrodes reproducibly—the fastest “no detours” route	If voltage is high or cycling issues dominate, add Table 3; if using self-made materials, also add Table 4

Table 1 | Electrode Active Materials (Cathode / Anode / Lithium Metal — most directly tied to cell performance)

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Cat. No.	Name	Specification / Purity	Application (relevant to Li-ion battery electrodes)
Cathode active material | NMC (layered)	346417-97-8	L476605	Lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxide	≥98%, powder, <0.5 μm particle size	NMC layered ternary cathode material; for capacity/rate/cycling benchmarking
Cathode active material | NCA (layered)	193214-24-3	L476604	Lithium nickel cobalt aluminum oxide	≥98%, powder, <0.5 μm particle size	High-Ni NCA cathode; for high–energy-density cathode studies/controls
Cathode active material | LFP (olivine)	15365-14-7	L476609	Lithium iron phosphate (II)	≥97%, powder, <5 μm particle size (BET)	LFP cathode; for LFP electrode formulation and performance comparisons
Cathode active material | LCO (layered)	12190-79-3	L298927	Lithium cobalt oxide	≥99% metals basis	LCO cathode; common for high-voltage cathode and baseline chemistry benchmarking
Cathode active material | LMO (spinel)	12057-17-9	L477430	Lithium manganese oxide	≥99%, spinel, powder, <0.5 μm particle size (BET)	Spinel LMO cathode; for cost-driven / high-power cathode studies and controls
Cathode active material | LNMO (spinel, high voltage)	12031-75-3	L477429	Lithium manganese nickel oxide	≥99%, powder, spinel, <0.5 μm particle size (BET)	High-voltage spinel LNMO cathode; for high-power/high-voltage system research
Cathode active material | LiNiO₂ (layered)	12031-65-1	L476463	Lithium nickel dioxide	≥98% metals basis, powder, <3 μm particle size (BET)	Layered LiNiO₂ cathode; for high-Ni cathode system research/controls
Cathode active material | LiCoPO₄ (olivine, high voltage)	13824-63-0	L476728	Lithium cobalt phosphate	≥99% metals basis	High-voltage olivine cathode (LiCoPO₄); for high-voltage cathode research/controls
Anode active material | LTO (spinel)	12031-95-7	L404110	Lithium titanate (spinel)	≥99%	LTO anode (“zero-strain” intercalation); for high-power/long-life and safety studies
Anode active material | SiOₓ (silicon oxide)	10097-28-6	S431223	Silicon monoxide	PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis, >325 mesh	SiOₓ anode active material; boosts specific capacity while balancing cycle stability (often blended with graphite)
Anode active material | Si (alloying-type)	7440-21-3	S434690	Silicon	≥99% metals basis, powder, −325 mesh	Si-based anode active material; high-capacity benchmarking / composite-electrode research (needs binder & interface engineering)
Anode active material | Sn (alloying-type)	7440-31-5	T434845	Tin	≥99% metals basis, powder, 10 μm	Sn-based anode active material; alloying Li-storage system research/controls
Anode active material | SnO₂ (conversion/alloying)	18282-10-5	T432251	Tin(IV) oxide	≥99.9% metals basis, >325 mesh	SnO₂ anode; conversion + alloying Li storage for high-capacity anode studies
Anode active material | Ge (alloying-type)	7440-56-4	C105173	Germanium powder	PrimorTrace™, ≥99.999% metals basis, powder, ≥200 mesh	Ge-based anode active material; alloying Li storage (high rate potential) for mechanism/control studies
Anode active material | Co₃O₄ (conversion-type)	1308-06-1	C111616	Cobalt(II,III) oxide	≥99% metals basis	Co₃O₄ conversion-type anode; for high-capacity anode mechanisms and nanostructure research
Anode active material | NiO (conversion-type)	1313-99-1	N294874	Nickel(II) oxide	≥99%, green, −325 mesh	NiO conversion-type anode; for mechanism studies and composite-anode benchmarking
Electrode active/additive | MnO₂	1313-13-9	M283571	Manganese dioxide	≥90%	Can serve as electrode active material or Mn-source additive in Li batteries (primary/secondary); for Mn-related electrode/interface studies
Electrode material | Lithium metal anode	7439-93-2	L106891	Lithium metal (regulated)	≥98.5%, high-sodium grade	Lithium-metal anode / half-cell counter electrode; for benchmarking electrode specific capacity and cycling (incl. Li-metal battery direction)
Electrode material | Lithium metal anode	7439-93-2	L106890	Lithium metal (regulated)	Battery grade, ≥99.9% metals basis	Lithium-metal anode / half-cell counter electrode; for benchmarking electrode specific capacity and cycling (incl. Li-metal battery direction)

Table 2 | Electrode Formulation & Slurry-Making (Conductive Additives / Binders / Solvents — determines processability and impedance)

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Cat. No.	Name	Specification / Purity	Application (relevant to Li-ion battery electrodes)
Solvent | Electrode slurry solvent	872-50-4	M100589	N-Methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP)	≥98%	Common solvent for PVDF binders; used for cathode (and some anode) slurry-making and coating
Binder / film-forming | PVDF (NMP system)	24937-79-9	P432377	Poly(vinylidene fluoride) (PVDF)	avg. Mw ~275,000; avg. Mn ~107,000 by GPC, agglomerates	Common binder for cathodes and some anodes; used with NMP for stable slurry coating and film formation
Binder / thickener | Water-based CMC	9004-32-4	C501052	Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC)	800–1000 mPa·s	Common water-based anode binder/thickener; improves slurry rheology and coating film formation (often paired with SBR/PAA)
Binder / elastomer | SBR-type copolymer	9003-55-8	P434453	Poly(styrene-co-butadiene)	butadiene 4 wt.%; melt index 6 g/10 min (200°C/5 kg)	Elastomeric binder (SBR-type use); used with CMC for water-based anode adhesion and toughness
Binder / dispersion system | Water-based binder	9003-01-4	P670252	Polyacrylic acid aqueous solution (PAA)	≥60%	Water-based binder/dispersant; often used for Si-based anodes or water-based processing to enhance adhesion and structural stability
Binder / thickener | Water-based alginate	9005-38-3	S100128	Sodium alginate	AR	Water-based binder; can help buffer volume change and improve adhesion for Si/metal-oxide anodes
Binder / film-forming | PTFE binder	9002-84-0	P111312	PTFE concentrated dispersion	60 wt.% dispersion	PTFE binder / fibrillation film-forming; often used for dry-process electrodes or to improve toughness and chemical resistance
Conductive additive / carbon | Carbon black	1333-86-4	C742510	Acetylene black	Lithium-ion battery electrode material	Classic conductive additive (Super P–type use); improves electronic conduction and reduces polarization
Conductive additive / carbon | Nano conductive network	308068-56-6	C434642	Single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT)	<1% metal catalyst	Conductive additive; builds electronic network at low loading, improves rate capability and electrode mechanics
Conductive additive / carbon | Graphite (conductive/thermal additive)	7782-42-5	G434786	Graphite	≥98%	Conductive/thermal additive; improves electronic conduction and electrode structural stability (often blended with carbon black/CNT)
Conductive additive / carbon | Graphene conductive additive	1034343-98-0	G302113	High-purity graphene	≥99%	Conductive/thermal additive; improves electronic conduction and electrode structural stability (often blended with carbon black/CNT)
Conductive additive / carbon | Porous carbon	1333-86-4	C431911	Carbon, mesoporous	≥99.95% metals basis; avg. pore diameter 100±10 Å (typical)	Porous carbon conductor/support; for S/Si composite electrodes or improving ion transport and electrolyte wetting

Table 3 | Current Collectors & Interfacial/Coating Inorganics (Thermal resistance, interface stability, current-collector support)

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Cat. No.	Name	Specification / Purity	Application (relevant to Li-ion battery electrodes)
Current collector / substrate | Cathode current collector	7429-90-5	A434650	Aluminum	(foil material) for 0.3 mm thickness, 30 mm width analysis	Cathode Al-foil current collector substrate for coated electrodes / coin-cell testing. Note: this spec is relatively thick, suitable for lab comparison/clamping; practical cells typically use much thinner Al foil (~10–20 μm).
Conductive scaffold / 3D current-collector research | Copper powder	7440-50-8	C575038	Copper powder	≥95%	Also used for 3D/porous current collectors, conductive frameworks, or composite-electrode research
Inorganic additive / coating | Al₂O₃	1344-28-1	A493162	Nano alumina aqueous dispersion	<30 nm particle size, 20 wt.% aqueous solution	Used for cathode/separator ceramic coatings or electrode additives; improves heat resistance and interface stability, suppresses side reactions
Inorganic additive / coating | TiO₂	13463-67-7	T431948	Titanium dioxide (IV)	≥97%, nanopowder; contains 1% Mn dopant; <100 nm particle size (BET)	Electrode/separator coating or additive; improves interface and thermal stability (this item is Mn-doped for modification benchmarking)
Inorganic additive / coating | SiO₂	7631-86-9	S433695	Silicon dioxide	≥99%	Electrode/separator coating filler; improves slurry rheology, structural stability, and heat resistance; also used for interfacial modification
Inorganic additive / coating | ZrO₂	1314-23-4	Z305381	Zirconium dioxide	≥99%	Ceramic coating and thermal-resistant filler for separators/electrodes; improves thermal stability and mechanical strength
Inorganic additive / coating | LiNbO₃	12031-63-9	L123766	Lithium niobate	≥99.9% metals basis	Typical cathode surface coating / interfacial layer for solid-state systems; improves high-voltage and solid electrolyte compatibility
Inorganic additive / coating | AlF₃	7784-18-1	A118462	Aluminum fluoride	anhydrous, ≥99%	Common cathode coating/additive; suppresses electrolyte oxidation and metal dissolution at high voltage, improves interface stability
Inorganic additive / coating | LiAlO₂	12003-67-7	L355068	Lithium aluminate	—	Can serve as cathode coating / inorganic binder or interfacial material for solid-state systems; for interface stability and chemical-resistance studies

Table 4 | Upstream Precursors: Metal Salts & Lithium Sources (Materials synthesis, doping, and stoichiometry control)

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Cat. No.	Name	Specification / Purity	Application (relevant to Li-ion battery electrodes)
Precursor / metal salt | Lithium source	1310-66-3	L573285	Lithium hydroxide monohydrate	≥56.5%	Common lithium source for cathode synthesis (high-Ni ternary/NCA sintering, etc.); also used in electrode formulation / electrolyte-related studies
Precursor / metal salt | Lithium source	1310-65-2	L106770	Lithium hydroxide, anhydrous	≥98%	Common lithium source for cathode synthesis (high-Ni ternary/NCA sintering, etc.); also used in electrode formulation / electrolyte-related studies
Precursor / metal salt | Lithium source	554-13-2	L616481	Lithium carbonate	≥99%	Common lithium source for cathode synthesis (e.g., ternary, LCO); also used for solid-state electrolytes / lithium-salt related studies
Precursor / metal salt | Lithium source	554-13-2	L1455823	Lithium carbonate	Battery grade, ≥99.5%	Common lithium source for cathode synthesis (e.g., ternary, LCO); also used for solid-state electrolytes / lithium-salt related studies
Precursor / metal salt | Ni source	10101-97-0	N141015	Nickel sulfate hexahydrate	≥98%	Ni source for NMC/NCA precursor co-precipitation and stoichiometry; for high-Ni cathode synthesis
Precursor / metal salt | Ni source	10101-97-0	N1455825	Nickel sulfate hexahydrate	Battery grade, Ni ≥22%	Ni source for NMC/NCA precursor co-precipitation and stoichiometry; for high-Ni cathode synthesis
Precursor / metal salt | Co source	10026-24-1	C116455	Cobalt sulfate heptahydrate	AR, ≥99%	Co source for NMC/NCA systems; for cathode precursor co-precipitation/doping/stoichiometry
Precursor / metal salt | Mn source	10034-96-5	M578582	Manganese sulfate monohydrate	≥99%	Mn source for NMC/LMO/LNMO systems; for cathode precursor synthesis and doping
Precursor / metal salt | Mn source	10034-96-5	M1375501	Manganese sulfate monohydrate	Battery grade	Mn source for NMC/LMO/LNMO systems; for cathode precursor synthesis and doping
Precursor / inorganic salt | FePO₄ precursor	10045-86-0	F188971	Iron phosphate	≥99%	Common Fe–P source for LFP synthesis (FePO₄); used in LiFePO₄ cathode precursor routes
Precursor / inorganic salt | Phosphate source / buffer salt	7722-76-1	A141011	Ammonium dihydrogen phosphate (APM)	≥99%	One phosphate source for LFP/LiMPO₄ cathodes; also used for ionic-strength/buffer controls
Precursor / inorganic salt | Lithium–phosphate source	10377-52-3	L101307	Lithium phosphate	≥99%	Li/P source for phosphate cathodes (LiMPO₄) or some solid-state electrolyte systems; for synthesis and doping controls

Note: The above are representative Aladdin catalog numbers. For more products, please refer to the product list at the end of the full article or search the official website using the CAS number / product name.

Aladdin: https://www.aladdinsci.com/