Part one | Background and Basic Definitions
1.1 A real-world question: Why should the public care about “printable semiconductor thin films”—and why are metal halide salts indispensable?
For next-generation photovoltaic (PV) and display materials, it is not enough to achieve high performance; they also need to be manufactured into large-area thin films using lower-temperature, higher-throughput, and lower-energy processes (e.g., coating, printing, inkjet, slot-die coating).
Metal halide salts (such as PbI₂, SnI₂, CsBr, etc.) become critical in this route because they can serve as meterable, soluble, formulation-ready ionic precursors: a “metal–halide–ligand” ensemble of species first forms in solution/process media, and then crystallization occurs during film formation and annealing to yield semiconductor thin films such as metal halide perovskites (ABX₃).
1. PV (power generation): Under third-party certification metrics (e.g., the NREL Best Research-Cell Efficiency Chart), the highest certified conversion efficiency for research-scale perovskite–silicon tandem (2T) cells has reached ~34.85% (in the 34%+ range; chart version updated to the January 2026 revision). This makes it one of the most watched pathways to “keep pushing efficiency on the silicon platform.” However, moving from lab records to printable/coatable large-area processes and long-term reliability still faces engineering barriers such as reproducibility, process-window convergence, and stability.
2. Displays / emission (light output): Halide perovskite nanocrystals (PeNCs, perovskite nanocrystals) and their related perovskite light-emitting diodes (PeLEDs) attract strong interest due to high color purity, tunable emission, and solution processability. Yet engineering issues—such as performance loss induced by pixelation/patterning processes—remain key bottlenecks for high-resolution displays moving toward application.
Given the same “metal halide salt precursors,” why can some groups consistently produce high-efficiency / long-lifetime films, while others repeatedly encounter uncontrolled crystallization, high defect densities, and poor stability? This article addresses that question: how to turn “metal halide salts” from a bottle of raw material into a controlled starting point for printable perovskite devices—thereby improving reproducibility and stability.
1.2 Core pain points
“Why, when it still says PbI₂ / PbBr₂ (or similar halide salts), can changing a batch of materials / moisture level / impurities cause device performance to swing from ‘very good’ to ‘very bad’?”
Success or failure in these materials depends heavily on three factors:
1. The true species present in solution (speciation): You think you added “a salt,” but the system may immediately undergo complexation/aggregation/ligand exchange.
2. Crystallization–film-formation pathway: Film compactness, grain and grain-boundary states, surface residues, etc. directly determine the device starting point.
3. Defects / ion migration / degradation: Halide-related migration and interfacial reactions can induce hysteresis, drift, and aging. Stability and reliability are hard thresholds for industrialization.
1.3 Basic definitions
Term | How to understand it | Key point |
Salt | A class of compounds consisting of cations and anions | IUPAC chemical definition: compounds composed of cations + anions. |
Metal halide salt | A salt/halide composed of a metal (or metal center) and halide anions (Cl⁻/Br⁻/I⁻/F⁻) | Very broad scope: from NaCl to PbI₂, SnI₂, ZnBr₂ all fall into this category; it is not equivalent to “perovskite” (perovskite is a structure concept). |
Metal halide perovskite | A class of halide semiconductors that satisfy perovskite lattice features | Defined by structure: a lattice network of corner-sharing BX₆ octahedra; stoichiometry often written as ABX₃ (or equivalent derivatives). |
“Printable semiconductors” | Material routes that can form usable semiconductor thin films via solution coating/printing/low-temperature processing | Advantages: low temperature and scalable coating potential; challenges: film quality, batch-to-batch consistency, and long-term stability. |
1.4 In perovskite formulations, what are A/B/X—and which “salt raw materials” correspond to them?
Position | Role in the ABX₃ structure | Common examples | Which “salt raw materials” correspond (relationship to metal halide salts) |
A site (A-site: monovalent, larger-radius cation) | Organic or inorganic monovalent cation | MA⁺ (methylammonium), FA⁺ (formamidinium), Cs⁺, etc. | The A site typically comes from organic ammonium halide salts or alkali-metal halides, such as MAX (= MAI/MABr/MACl; X = I/Br/Cl), FAX (= FAI/FABr/FACl), and CsI/CsBr/CsCl. It mainly influences phase stability, crystallization kinetics, and the film-morphology process window. |
B site (metal center) | Divalent metal cation | Pb²⁺, Sn²⁺, etc. | The B site commonly comes from metal halides, such as PbI₂/PbBr₂ (or PbCl₂), SnI₂/SnBr₂, etc.—typical metal halide salt precursors. |
X site (halide anion site) | Halide anion | I⁻, Br⁻, Cl⁻ | The X site determines bandgap/color and stability related to ion migration. Selecting/mixing halides (and the corresponding halide precursor system) tunes optoelectronic properties, but also introduces stability challenges such as halide migration and phase segregation. |
Part two | Why the same nominal recipe can yield very different outcomes: three key stages reveal how metal halide salts shape performance
2.1 Core conclusion: Large differences under the “same” recipe mostly arise because key conditions are not locked down—and metal halide salts are among the most common sources of drift
1. In solution-processed perovskite PV/display systems, “the nominal recipe is the same, but results differ drastically” is usually not accidental. More often, key variables from raw materials to films drift across batches, moisture conditions, or process windows—so the system evolves along different microscopic pathways.
2. Next, we organize troubleshooting and selection logic using a minimal causal chain:
Species in the precursor solution (speciation) → Film formation and crystallization pathway (nucleation–growth window) → Defects/ion migration and interfacial reactions (operational stability)
2.2 Three key stages: a “reproducibility pathway” from precursor to device performance
Note: The table below helps quickly locate the main source of variables. In practice, all three stages often influence results simultaneously, so it is recommended to troubleshoot in priority order and perform controlled comparison experiments.
Key stage (source of decisive variables) | Common abnormal signals | Mechanistic essentials | Halide-related variables (priority focus) | Recommended minimal checks |
Stage 1: Species distribution in the precursor solution (speciation) | Solution color/clarity changes with aging; viscosity/rheology differs even at the same nominal concentration; flocs/precipitation or obvious turbidity appears after standing | In the presence of strongly coordinating solvents and additives, metal halides can form multiple coordination/complex/aggregate species. Their distribution depends on moisture content, solvent coordination strength, impurities, and aging time. Shifts in speciation further reshape subsequent film formation and crystallization behavior | Hydration state/hygroscopicity of salts; trace impurities; halide identity (I/Br/Cl); coordination ability of solvent system (DMF/DMSO, etc.); solution aging time window | At fixed time points (e.g., 0/2/24 h, or the most common window in your workflow), record clarity/color. Run a “solution blank control” (precursor + key solvent/additives only, no film formation) to confirm whether spontaneous changes occur |
Stage 2: Film formation and crystallization pathway (nucleation–growth window) | Many pinholes; discontinuous coverage; local island-like regions; large differences in grain size/surface roughness; strong device-to-device scatter | The core of solution processing is controlling the supersaturation trigger point and the relative rates of nucleation vs. growth. If intermediate phases/solvent evaporation/anti-solvent triggering (if used) shifts, film microstructure and the defect spectrum can change dramatically, reducing reproducibility | Dissolution and coordination characteristics of precursors such as PbX₂/SnX₂; mixed-halide ratios and halide activity; effects of halide additives on supersaturation and crystallization kinetics; ambient temperature/humidity and solvent evaporation conditions | Lock down film-formation conditions: unify temperature/humidity range, spin-coating/coating parameters, (if used) anti-solvent timing, and annealing program. Prioritize “change only one variable” comparisons to determine whether the issue comes from the process window or precursor state |
Stage 3: Defects, ion migration, and interfacial reactions (operational stability) | J–V hysteresis; Voc/EL drifts with time or stress; performance decay under continuous light/voltage bias; spectral drift in emission/absorption for mixed-halide systems; faster LED degradation at high brightness (high current density) | Metal halide perovskites may contain mobile ions/vacancies and other charged defects. Under electric field, illumination, and thermal stress, ionic rearrangement and interfacial electrochemical/chemical reactions are more likely, leading to hysteresis, drift, and aging. Mixed-halide systems are more sensitive to halide redistribution | Halide migration tendency and defect density; grain-boundary/surface defect states; compatibility of interlayers/electrodes with halides; mixed-halide composition and sensitivity to stress (light/electric/thermal) | Use graded-stress testing: first establish a baseline at low stress (low light intensity / low current / low bias), then increase stress stepwise and observe drift/decay. Evaluate hysteresis sensitivity using different scan rates/pre-bias conditions as indicative signals of ion/interfacial issues |
2.3 Rapid mapping: link observed anomalies to the stage to prioritize
1. Solution discoloration, turbidity, instability after standing (precipitation/flocculation)
→ Prioritize Stage 1: solution speciation and aging time window (moisture, solvent coordination, impurities, aging)
2. Poor coverage, many pinholes, large morphology fluctuations, strong device scatter
→ Prioritize Stage 2: film-formation and crystallization window (supersaturation trigger, anti-solvent/evaporation/annealing window, ambient temperature/humidity)
3. Hysteresis/drift/lifetime drop; spectral drift in mixed-halide systems; faster LED decay at high brightness
→ Prioritize Stage 3: defects–ion migration–interfacial reactions (interfacial compatibility, defect passivation, mixed-halide stress sensitivity)
Part three | Selecting Salts by Research Task: Classification and Quick Navigation for Metal Halide Salts
3.1 From a “causal chain” to an actionable list
1. The previous section has shown that even with the same nominal recipe, results can still differ dramatically. The most common causes concentrate in three key stages: speciation in the precursor solution, film formation and crystallization pathway, and operational stability determined by defects/ion migration and interfacial reactions. These issues recur because metal halide salts are both the direct sources of material composition and major variable inputs to solution chemistry, crystallization kinetics, and interfacial processes.
2. This section organizes the key variables across those three stages into a research-task-oriented “salt role classification.” When facing different goals (baseline devices, bandgap/phase-stability tuning, defect passivation, stability/lifetime improvement, scale-up coating, etc.), you can first identify which class of halide salts to prioritize, and then clarify the boundary conditions that must be controlled for that class (e.g., hydration state, solution time window, mixed-halide ratio, interfacial compatibility). This helps narrow troubleshooting and selection into an operationally manageable scope.
3.2 Four classes of metal halide salts (A–D)
Class | One-sentence definition (role in the system) | Main influence path (solution → film formation → stability) | Representative salts | Typical uses & common notes |
A. Framework precursors | Directly supply the metal-halide inputs needed to build the perovskite framework (the “starting point” of the bulk material) | Primarily affects solution speciation and crystallization/film formation, which then defines the defect spectrum and subsequent stability | PbI₂, PbBr₂; SnI₂, SnBr₂ (Sn-based systems are usually more sensitive) | Uses: establishing baseline materials and film quality (PV/LED general). Focus: hydration state/hygroscopicity, batch-to-batch differences, and the solution aging window can strongly shift speciation and the crystallization window. Sn(II) systems additionally require close attention to oxidation sensitivity. |
B. Composition-tuning salts | Inorganic halides used to tune halide ratio, phase stability, and bandgap window (the “composition/bandgap knobs”) | Mainly impacts crystal phase and compositional stability, and can also affect ion-related behavior and spectral drift (stability) | CsI/CsBr, KI/KBr, RbI, etc. | Uses: bandgap/phase-stability tuning, mixed-halide controls, halide compensation, and fine recipe adjustments. Focus: mixed-halide systems are more stress-sensitive (light/electric/thermal) and may show halide redistribution leading to spectral/performance drift. Dose and addition strategy should be tied to the target phase/bandgap, rather than chasing only short-term metrics. |
C. Defect-passivation / interface-related additive salts | Introduced at low doses to reduce surface/grain-boundary defects and ion-related instabilities (more about “stability and consistency”) | Primarily affects defects and interfaces (stability), but may also change crystallization pathways (film formation) | Metal halides such as ZnBr₂; some alkali-metal halides are also used in “halide compensation/passivation” strategies | Uses: reducing non-radiative recombination, alleviating hysteresis/drift, improving operational or emission stability (especially for LEDs and high-brightness driving). Focus: effects depend strongly on dose, solvent, and interface stack; evaluate mainly by stability/consistency improvements, not only initial efficiency or brightness. |
D. Process/interface-sensitive factors & risk boundaries | Halide-related factors that most easily introduce side reactions or uncontrolled variables in solution processing and device stacking (usage conditions must be made explicit) | All three paths can be impacted; most commonly solution speciation and interfacial stability | Hygroscopic/hydrolysis-prone, strongly coordinating, or highly reactive halides; and “metal-halide formation driven by electrode/interfacial reactions,” etc. | Uses: clarifying which variables must be written into process boundaries (drying/storage, mixing-to-coating time window, ambient humidity, interlayer compatibility). Focus: halide migration to interfaces can trigger electrode/interlayer reactions (e.g., Ag electrodes in iodide-containing systems may risk forming silver halides). Thus interfacial material choice and encapsulation/barrier strategies are often tightly coupled to stability. |
3.3 Quick mapping by research task: which class of metal halide salts (A–D) to prioritize
Typical research task / need (PV / display) | Prioritize which class (A–D) | Why prioritize this class (solution → film formation → stability) | Representative salt keywords |
Baseline PV (e.g., MAPbI₃ / FAPbI₃): stabilize efficiency and reproducibility first | A (framework precursors) + matching organic halide salts | First lock down speciation and the crystallization window. Film density and the defect spectrum set the performance baseline; reproducibility starts from consistent inputs and a consistent film-formation pathway | PbI₂, PbBr₂; MAI/FAI etc. as paired inputs |
High-bandgap / semitransparent / tandem top cells (Br-rich) | A + B (composition tuning) | You are simultaneously tuning bandgap and phase stability/halide distribution; crystallization pathways and ion-related instabilities are more easily amplified | PbBr₂/PbI₂; CsBr/CsI, KBr/KI, RbI, etc. |
PeNC-LED (especially high-resolution display / patterning) | A + B (composition/halide sources), and often C (stability additives) | Nanocrystal/film emission is more sensitive to surface and grain-boundary defects; patterning introduces extra stress and residues, so stability often becomes the dominant constraint | PbBr₂ (one common precursor for green-emitting systems); CsBr; (stability/passivation) ZnBr₂, alkali-metal halides, etc. |
Lead-free / low-lead exploration (Sn-based, etc.) | A (Sn halides), often with C (defect suppression / anti-oxidation additives) | Key constraints often shift to Sn(II) oxidation sensitivity and defect control, directly impacting reproducibility and lifetime | SnI₂, SnBr₂; (common auxiliary approach) SnF₂ and related metal-halide additives |
Fix J–V hysteresis, drift, lifetime drop-offs (PV/LED general) | C (defect/interface additives) + D (interfaces & operating boundaries) | Hysteresis/drift/decay often couples defects, ion migration, and interfacial reactions; you need both “defect/interface management” and “tightened operating boundaries” | Alkali-metal halides used for ionic additives/halide compensation/passivation (KI/RbI/CsBr, etc.); ZnX₂ and other metal halides; (interface risk) reactions involving metal electrodes such as Ag should be included |
Scale-up coating/printing (narrower window, higher batch sensitivity) | D (boundaries / high-sensitivity factors) + revisit A (framework precursor consistency) | Scale-up most easily amplifies how moisture and solution time window alter speciation, and how crystallization responds to environment/process sensitivity; uncontrolled factors must be rewritten as controllable parameters | Hygroscopic or hydrate-forming halides; systems where strong coordination makes speciation highly sensitive; also lock down PbX₂/SnX₂ batch, storage, and mixing-to-coating time window |
Part Four | Aladdin Product Navigation Table | Printable Halide Perovskite Thin Films: Quickly locate Tables 1–4 by research task
Research task / experimental need (PV / display / PeLED) | Which table to check first | Table-selection logic (solution → film formation → stability) | Representative products in the table (examples) |
Baseline perovskite films/devices (MAPbI₃, FAPbI₃, mixed-cation, etc.): stabilize efficiency and reproducibility | Table 4 (first) + Table 1 (as needed) | Baseline success/failure is first determined by PbX₂/SnX₂ purity / moisture / solution time window (driving speciation and the film-formation window). CsX/KX/RbX in Table 1 are often used for micro-dose halide compensation, controls, or phase-stability assistance to help convergence | Table 4: PbI₂, PbBr₂, PbCl₂; Table 1: CsI/CsBr, KI/KBr, RbI |
Br-rich high-bandgap / semitransparent / tandem top cells (more sensitive: phase segregation / spectral drift / ion migration) | Table 4 + Table 1 (co-priority) | High-bandgap tasks require locking down “framework salts + halide reservoir / phase-stability knobs” together. Br-rich systems more easily amplify differences in halide activity, film-formation window, and stress-driven halide redistribution | Table 4: PbBr₂ (paired with PbI₂ for ratio control), PbCl₂ (used in small amounts in some routes); Table 1: CsBr/CsI, KBr/KI, RbI |
All-inorganic CsPbX₃ films/nanocrystals (PeNCs) and PeLEDs (high color purity/pixelation, but stronger defect/stability constraints) | Table 4 (first) + Table 1 (CsX) + Table 3 (as needed) | All-inorganic systems depend more directly on CsX supply and the halide reservoir. PeLED/patterning is more sensitive to surface/grain-boundary defects and interfacial reactions, often requiring “passivation/interface control salts” (Table 3) to suppress non-radiative loss and drift | Table 4: PbBr₂ (common green-emission framework precursor), PbI₂; Table 1: CsBr/CsI/CsCl; Table 3: ZnBr₂ (passivation approach), CuI (functional layer/control depending on system) |
Lead-free / low-lead Sn-based perovskites (core constraints: Sn(II) oxidation + defects) | Table 4 (priority) | The reproducibility baseline for Sn systems is first about anhydrous/ultra-dry + anti-oxidation boundaries: speciation and defect density are highly sensitive to oxygen/water. SnF₂ is often used as an auxiliary additive strategy (listed in Table 4) | Table 4: SnI₂, SnBr₂, SnCl₂(II), SnF₂ |
Fix J–V hysteresis / drift / lifetime drop-offs (PV/PeLED general) | Table 3 (first) + revisit Table 1 / Table 4 | Hysteresis/drift often points to defect–ion migration–interface coupling. Table 3 provides an entry point for “controllable metal-halide additives / interface controls,” often paired with Table 1 for halide compensation/ionic controls; if needed, return to Table 4 to check framework-salt batch/moisture | Table 3: ZnBr₂/ZnCl₂ (additive/passivation controls), CuI (interface/functional-layer control); Table 1: KI/RbI/CsBr; Table 4: PbI₂/PbBr₂ (batch/moisture re-check) |
Scale-up coating/printing (narrower window, higher batch sensitivity, harder environmental control) | Table 4 (first) + Table 1 (check “ultra-dry/high-purity”) | Scale-up most fears “same recipe, different results,” often caused not by the recipe but by salt moisture/impurities plus the mixing-to-coating time window that drives speciation drift. Prioritize ultra-dry/high-purity specs from Tables 4/1 and write storage/operating boundaries into the SOP | Table 4: PrimorTrace ultra-dry PbI₂/PbBr₂/SnI₂; Table 1: PrimorTrace ultra-dry CsBr/RbI/LiI, etc. (system-dependent) |
Halide-composition gradients / halide exchange / halide-compensation controls (for bandgap, phase stability, spectral drift studies) | Table 1 (first) + Table 4 (paired) | The cleanest entry for a “halide reservoir/control” is often monovalent halide salts (KX/CsX/RbX): good solubility, clear stoichiometry, and less coordination interference. Then pair with framework salts in Table 4 to close the system loop | Table 1: KI/KBr, CsI/CsBr, RbI; Table 4: PbI₂/PbBr₂, SnI₂/SnBr₂ |
Pb-free but still “halide semiconductor thin-film” routes (Bi/Sb substitutions for optoelectronic/detector/emission controls) | Table 4 (priority) | Bi/Sb halides are often used for “lower-toxicity alternatives/new-phase routes.” Key challenges still include hydrolysis/moisture and phase purity; start from Table 4 and locate by metal and halide | Table 4: BiI₃/BiBr₃/BiCl₃, SbI₃/SbBr₃ |
Interface/electrode reaction risk identification “control materials” (e.g., silver-halide formation risk, photosensitive halide controls) | Table 4 | Not the main “recipe salts,” but useful for understanding “what happens when halides reach interfaces.” AgX can serve as halide-reaction/photosensitivity controls (also common in reference-electrode/analysis contexts) | Table 4: AgCl, AgBr |
Notes (How to Use Tables 1–4)
1. Main storyline and intended use: Table 4 (PbX₂ / SnX₂ / BiX₃ / SbX₃, etc.) is the core precursor table for printable halide semiconductors / perovskite thin films. Table 1 (K/Cs/Rb and other alkali halides) mainly serves as a halide reservoir, halide-compensation controls, and fine phase-stability tuning. Table 3 (Zn/Mn/Cu halides) is more often used as defect/interface-related additives or functional-layer/interface controls. Table 2 (Mg/Ca) is mostly for exploratory additives / “salt-effect” controls and is typically not a mainline must-have.
2. Non-mainline entries: Items labeled for uses such as “cell/plant culture” or “MS calibration/analysis” primarily correspond to media or methodology scenarios. In this article’s context, they are usually used as ionic-strength/background halide controls or for conceptual completeness, rather than being routine first-choice perovskite precursors.
3. Reproducibility boundaries: Most halide salts are hygroscopic and/or moisture-sensitive (especially Sn(II) salts and some ultra-dry grades). It is recommended to fix and record: storage and post-opening exposure time, dry/inert handling, mixing-to-coating time window, and ambient temperature/humidity, to reduce batch-to-batch variation caused by speciation drift and crystallization-window shifts.
4. Safety and compliance: Lead-containing/heavy-metal salts require appropriate PPE and proper waste segregation/disposal per lab regulations. For Sn(II) systems, pay special attention to oxidation/hydrolysis risks and operate under inert conditions when needed.
Table 1 | Alkali Metal Halides (Li / Na / K / Rb / Cs)
Category | CAS No. | Aladdin Cat. No. | Product name | Specification / purity | Product features and applications |
Alkali metal halides | Fluoride | 7789-24-4 | Lithium fluoride | Powder, −300 mesh | High-melting, low-solubility LiF: commonly used in molten salts/fluxes, solid-state synthesis, and ceramic/inorganic formulations; −300 mesh powder improves homogeneous mixing and sintering; also serves as an LiF control species in fluorinated interfaces/battery-material studies. | |
Alkali metal halides | High-purity anhydrous lithium salt | 7447-41-8 | Lithium chloride | Anhydrous, 99.99% metals basis | High-purity Li⁺ source: for moisture-sensitive or trace-metal-sensitive systems (batteries, electrolytes, inorganic/coordination synthesis); also used as an additive salt in polar solvent systems to tune dissolution/ionic strength; highly hygroscopic, recommended for dry/inert, rapid handling. | |
Alkali metal halides | Anhydrous lithium bromide | 7550-35-8 | Lithium bromide | Anhydrous, high purity, reagent grade, ≥99% | Dual source of Li⁺/Br⁻: widely used in moisture-sensitive synthesis, electrolytes, and halide-composition tuning; LiBr is strongly hygroscopic and can act as a “moisture magnifier” for the system—strict drying and sealing are required. | |
Alkali metal halides | Ultra-dry lithium iodide | 10377-51-2 | Lithium iodide | Ultra-dry, PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | Ultra-dry I⁻ donor: suited for glovebox/moisture-sensitive workflows (halide perovskites, inorganic halide synthesis, halide exchange/additive studies); high purity reduces side reactions triggered by trace metals and water. | |
Alkali metal halides | Fluoride | 7681-49-4 | Sodium fluoride | Superior grade reagent, ≥98% | Common F⁻ source / inorganic fluoride precursor: for preparing metal fluorides and tuning ionic strength/halide composition in solution; acidic conditions may generate HF risk—use standard fluoride safety practices. | |
Inorganic halide salts for media (background electrolyte) | 7647-14-5 | C111542 | Sodium chloride | For plant cell culture, ≥99.5% | Base salt for media / osmolarity & ionic strength: provides Na⁺/Cl⁻ background electrolyte for plant cell culture; also commonly used as a baseline salt/blank control in halide systems. |
Alkali metal halides | Bromide | 7647-15-6 | Sodium bromide | Anhydrous, high purity, reagent grade, ≥99% | Common Br⁻ source / basic bromide: for preparing metal bromides, halide exchange, and electrolyte background salts; anhydrous grade suits moisture-sensitive halide systems. | |
Alkali metal halides | Iodide | 7681-82-5 | Sodium iodide | Anhydrous, high purity, reagent grade, ≥99% | Common I⁻ source / halide-exchange salt: for introducing iodide, preparing iodides, and halide-composition control; iodides can discolor under light/air—store dry and protected from light. | |
Alkali metal halides | Fluoride | 7789-23-3 | Potassium fluoride | Suitable for analysis, ACS, superior grade | Common F⁻ source / mildly basic inorganic fluoride: used in some nucleophilic processes in organic synthesis (often with crown ether/phase-transfer systems), preparing metal fluorides, and tuning halide composition; note acidification risk and fluoride safety. | |
Inorganic halide salts for media (background electrolyte) | 7447-40-7 | Potassium chloride | For cell culture, ≥99.5% | Electrolyte / K⁺ source for media: provides K⁺/Cl⁻ background for cell culture; also a basic salt for adjusting ionic strength and conductivity in electrochemical/interface experiments. | |
Inorganic halide salts for media (trace elements/halide source) | 7681-11-0 | Potassium iodide | For plant cell culture | I⁻ source: provides trace halide/iodide in plant cell culture; also commonly used in chemical systems as a basic salt for halide exchange/iodide introduction. | |
Alkali metal halides | Analytical-grade rubidium salt | 7791-11-9 | Rubidium chloride | Suitable for analysis, superior grade | Rb⁺ source (analysis/standard-solution friendly): used to prepare analytical rubidium salt solutions, ion doping, and as a control in halide-material routes (Rb-based halides/perovskite A-site, etc.). | |
Alkali metal halides | Ultra-dry rubidium bromide | 7789-39-1 | Rubidium bromide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.99% metals basis | Ultra-dry Rb⁺/Br⁻ precursor: for Rb-doped halide materials and electrical/optical property controls; suited for glovebox routes, reducing impurity-driven luminescence quenching and conductivity drift. | |
Alkali metal halides | Ultra-dry rubidium iodide | 7790-29-6 | Rubidium iodide | Ultra-dry, ≥99.9% metals basis | Ultra-dry Rb⁺/I⁻ precursor: for phase stability, halide composition, and defect control in Rb-based halides and perovskites; ultra-dry grade reduces water-induced phase segregation and hydrolysis side reactions. | |
Alkali metal halides | High-purity cesium fluoride | 13400-13-0 | Cesium fluoride | UltraBio™, ≥99% (F) | Highly reactive F⁻ source: CsF is often more “usable” in polar aprotic solvents; used in organic synthesis for desilylation/promoting nucleophilic processes; high purity helps avoid trace-metal interference in sensitive reactions/material routes. | |
Alkali metal halides | High-purity cesium salt | 7647-17-8 | Cesium chloride | Anhydrous, high purity, reagent grade, ≥99.9% metals basis | High-purity Cs⁺ source: for halide materials (Cs-based halides/perovskites) and ion doping; also used for methodological controls such as high ionic strength/density gradients; anhydrous grade suits moisture-sensitive material routes. | |
Alkali metal halides | Ultra-dry cesium bromide | 7787-69-1 | Cesium bromide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.99% metals basis | Ultra-dry Cs⁺/Br⁻ precursor: for phase stability, halide composition, and defect control in Cs-based halides/perovskites; ultra-dry grade reduces water-induced phase segregation and hydrolysis side reactions. | |
Alkali metal halides | Analytical standard / ultra-high purity | 7789-17-5 | Cesium iodide | Analytical standard, ≥99.9995% metals basis, for high-throughput MS | MS calibration/standard salt: CsI readily forms cluster ions and is commonly used for mass spectrometry (especially high mass range) calibration and method validation; also serves as an ultra-high-purity Cs⁺/I⁻ source for precursor controls in halide optoelectronic materials. |
Table 2 | Alkaline Earth Metal Halides (Mg / Ca)
Category | CAS No. | Aladdin Cat. No. | Product name | Specification / purity | Product features and applications |
Alkaline earth metal halides | Mg(II) | 7789-48-2 | M290956 | Magnesium bromide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.99% metals basis | Ultra-dry Mg²⁺/Br⁻ source: for inorganic material synthesis, ionic doping, and halide-environment tuning; extremely moisture-sensitive—ultra-dry grade is better for “controlled moisture window” experiments. |
Alkaline earth metal halides | Mg(II) | 10377-58-9 | Magnesium iodide | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis | Ultra-dry Mg²⁺/I⁻ source: for halide materials and coordination chemistry; in organic synthesis often used as a Lewis-acid-type salt or halide-composition tuning additive; strongly hygroscopic—recommended for rapid weighing under inert atmosphere. | |
Alkaline earth metal halides | Ca(II) | 7789-41-5 | Calcium bromide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.99% metals basis | Ultra-dry Ca²⁺/Br⁻ source: for inorganic synthesis, ionic doping of halide materials, and salt-effect studies; highly hygroscopic—ultra-dry grade suits “controlled moisture” experimental design for moisture-sensitive systems. | |
Alkaline earth metal halides | Ca(II) | 10102-68-8 | Calcium iodide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.99% metals basis | Ultra-dry Ca²⁺/I⁻ source: for doping halide materials, ion-conduction/electrolyte studies, and halide-composition controls; iodides are more sensitive to light/oxygen—store sealed and protected from light. |
Table 3 | Transition Metal Halides (Zn / Mn / Cu)
Category | CAS No. | Aladdin Cat. No. | Product name | Specification / purity | Product features and applications |
Transition metal halides | Zn(II) | 7646-85-7 | Zinc chloride | Superior grade reagent, ≥98% | Typical Zn²⁺ precursor + Lewis acid/dehydrating agent: used for activation in organic synthesis (e.g., hydroxyl/carbonyl systems), polymerization/modification reactions, and coordination chemistry, MOF/inorganic material synthesis; strongly hygroscopic—store dry. | |
Transition metal halides | Zn(II) | 7699-45-8 | Zinc bromide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.99% metals basis | High-purity anhydrous Zn²⁺–Br precursor: for moisture-sensitive synthesis, Zn-based halide materials, and Lewis-acid system controls; ultra-dry grade improves reproducibility and reduces byproducts (oxyhalides/hydrates). | |
Transition metal halides | Zn(II) | 10139-47-6 | Zinc iodide | Suitable for analysis, superior grade | Zn²⁺ + I⁻ precursor: for analytical/standard-solution preparation and halide-system controls; in organic synthesis can act as a Lewis-acid-type iodide salt for activation/halide-composition tuning; note hygroscopicity. | |
Transition metal halides | Mn(II) | 7773-01-5 | Manganese(II) chloride, anhydrous | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis | High-purity anhydrous Mn²⁺ precursor: for electrochemistry/battery and inorganic materials (Mn-doped luminescent materials, magnetic/catalytic systems, halide-material doping) studies; anhydrous grade reduces hydrolysis and oxidation side reactions. | |
Transition metal halides | Mn(II) | 13446-03-2 | Manganese(II) bromide | ≥98% | Mn²⁺/Br⁻ source: for Mn-doped inorganic materials (luminescence/magnetism/catalysis), electrochemistry, and coordination systems; halide background significantly affects dissolution/complexation and valence stability—useful as a control salt. | |
Transition metal halides | Cu(I) | 7681-65-4 | Copper(I) iodide | Anhydrous, ≥99.995% metals basis | High-purity Cu(I) precursor: widely used in coupling/coordination catalysis, Cu(I) complex synthesis, and halide semiconductor/optoelectronic materials (e.g., p-type CuI); avoid strong oxidants/moisture that may change the oxidation state. |
Table 4 | Main-Group / Post-Transition + Noble-Metal Halides (Sn / Pb / Bi / Sb + Ag)
Category | CAS No. | Aladdin Cat. No. | Product name | Specification / purity | Product features and applications |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Sn(II) | 7783-47-3 | Tin(II) fluoride | ≥99% | Sn²⁺ fluorinated precursor: for fluorinated inorganic materials/additive systems and Sn(II) speciation control studies; sensitive to water/oxygen—use under dry conditions to avoid oxidation/hydrolysis. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Sn(II) | 7772-99-8 | Tin(II) chloride | Anhydrous, suitable for synthesis | Typical Sn²⁺ precursor / source for mild reducing systems: used in inorganic/material synthesis (tin compounds, Sn(II) doping/precursors) and organic reduction systems; prone to hydrolysis/oxidation—requires anhydrous conditions. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Sn(II) | 10031-24-0 | Tin(II) bromide | ≥99% | Sn²⁺–Br precursor: for Sn(II) coordination/material synthesis and halide-environment tuning; easily oxidized/hydrolyzed—anhydrous solvents and inert atmosphere improve reproducibility. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Sn(II) | 10294-70-9 | Tin(II) iodide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.99% metals basis | Sn²⁺–I precursor (key moisture-sensitive salt): for Sn-based halide semiconductors/perovskites, Sn(II) doping, and reductive-system studies; ultra-dry grade is critical for suppressing Sn(II)→Sn(IV) oxidation and defects. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Pb(II) | 7758-95-4 | Lead(II) chloride | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.99% metals basis | Pb²⁺–Cl precursor: for halide materials (Pb–Cl systems), precipitation/coordination controls, and halide-exchange studies; ultra-dry grade helps control hydrolysis/basic-salt formation; lead requires compliant handling and waste disposal. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Pb(II) | 10031-22-8 | Lead(II) bromide | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.999% metals basis | Pb–Br optoelectronic precursor (ultra-high purity): for halide perovskites/quantum dots (Pb–Br systems) and emissive/detector materials; ultra-high purity helps reduce deep-level defects and batch variation; lead requires strict compliant disposal. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Pb(II) | 10101-63-0 | Lead(II) iodide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.999% metals basis | Typical lead halide optoelectronic precursor: for halide perovskites/quantum dots/detectors (Pb–I systems) synthesis and controls; ultra-dry + ultra-high purity helps reduce defects and batch-to-batch fluctuations; strict safety and waste management required. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Bi(III) | 7787-60-2 | Bismuth(III) chloride | Reagent grade | Bi³⁺ halide precursor / Lewis acid: for bismuth complexes, halide semiconductors, and catalysis; relatively “mild” Lewis-acid routes are common, but hydrolysis and chloride-coordination effects should still be considered. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Bi(III) | 7787-58-8 | Bismuth(III) bromide | Anhydrous, ≥99.998% metals basis, powder | High-purity Bi³⁺ halide precursor: for bismuth halide semiconductors/optoelectronic materials, catalysis, and coordination synthesis; powder form supports solid-state batching and rapid dissolution; moisture-sensitive—handle dry/inert. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Bi(III) | 7787-64-6 | Bismuth(III) iodide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.99% metals basis | Bi–I semiconductor/optoelectronic precursor: for bismuth iodides and related “lower-toxicity” alternatives (relative to Pb), coordination chemistry, and optical controls; ultra-dry grade reduces risk of forming bismuth oxyiodide via hydrolysis. | |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Sb(III) | 7789-61-9 | A419297 | Antimony(III) bromide | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | Sb–Br precursor / Lewis-acid salt: for antimony halide semiconductor materials, coordination, and catalysis systems; high purity reduces color/electrical drift driven by trace metals. |
Main-group/post-transition metal halides | Sb(III) | 7790-44-5 | A292136 | Antimony(III) iodide | PrimorTrace™, ultra-dry, ≥99.999% metals basis | Sb³⁺ halide precursor: for antimony halide semiconductors/optoelectronic materials, coordination chemistry, and Lewis-acid systems; ultra-dry grade suits moisture-sensitive routes and reduces oxyhalide formation via hydrolysis. |
Noble-metal halides | Silver salts | 7783-90-6 | Silver chloride | Suitable for analysis, superior grade reagent, ≥99% | Typical AgX (silver halide): used as photosensitive/photochemical control material, for halide precipitation analysis (Cl⁻ qualitative/quantitative), and Ag/AgCl-related electrochemical reference/interfacial studies. | |
Noble-metal halides | Silver salts | 7785-23-1 | Silver bromide | ≥99.9% metals basis | Typical photosensitive AgBr: used for photochemistry/photosensitive materials and characterization controls; also used in model studies related to bromide release/capture reaction systems. |
Note: The above are representative Aladdin products. For additional specifications, please refer to the product list at the end of the article or search the Aladdin website by product name / CAS / catalog number.
Aladdin: https://www.aladdinsci.com/
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