Why Do Alcohols Differ in Function: Why Is Glycerol Mainly Moisturizing, Propylene Glycol Mainly Solubilizing, and Isopropyl Alcohol Fast-Drying? — Understanding Personal Care Formulation Functions from Structural Differences

1. Structural Differences: Why Do Alcohols Differ in Function?

In the ingredient lists of personal care and daily chemical products, propylene glycol, glycerol, and isopropyl alcohol all contain the word “alcohol” or belong to alcohol-type compounds, but their roles in formulations are not the same. Glycerol, also known as glycerin, is commonly used for moisturization and for improving lubricity. Propylene glycol is often used for auxiliary moisturization, solubilization, and improving system uniformity. Isopropyl alcohol is more commonly used in fast-drying, cleaning, degreasing, and disinfection-related products.

The fundamental reason for these differences lies in molecular structure. In particular, the number of hydroxyl groups, molecular polarity, hydrogen-bonding ability, and volatility determine their different functional characteristics in personal care formulations.

Ingredient	Structural Characteristics	Main Formulation Performance
Isopropyl Alcohol, IPA	3 carbon atoms, 1 hydroxyl group	Fast evaporation, fast drying, degreasing, cleaning
Propylene Glycol, PG	3 carbon atoms, 2 hydroxyl groups	Auxiliary moisturization, solubilization, carrier, skin-feel adjustment
Glycerol / Glycerin	3 carbon atoms, 3 hydroxyl groups	Humectant moisturization, lubricity, improvement of dryness

2. Starting with Structure: The Differences Among These Three “Alcohols” Begin with the Number of Hydroxyl Groups

All three are three-carbon alcohol compounds, but they differ in the number and position of hydroxyl groups. This forms the basis for their subsequent performance differences.

Ingredient	Number of Hydroxyl Groups	Alcohol Type	Key Structural Feature
Isopropyl alcohol	1	Secondary alcohol	The hydroxyl group is attached to the middle carbon atom
Propylene glycol	2	Diol	One hydroxyl group is located at each of the 1,2-positions
Glycerol	3	Triol	Three hydroxyl groups are distributed across the three carbon atoms

2.1 Isopropyl Alcohol: A Monohydric Secondary Alcohol

The molecular structure of isopropyl alcohol consists of 3 carbon atoms and 1 hydroxyl group, with the hydroxyl group located on the middle carbon atom. It is therefore classified as a secondary alcohol. Structurally, isopropyl alcohol contains two functional features: the polarity contributed by the hydroxyl group, and the affinity for organic phases contributed by the hydrocarbon structure. Because it has only 1 hydroxyl group, the number of sites available for hydrogen bonding is limited. This is the structural basis for its clear differences from propylene glycol and glycerol.

 

2.2 Propylene Glycol: A Dihydric Three-Carbon Alcohol

In personal care and daily chemical formulations, “propylene glycol” usually refers to 1,2-propylene glycol. It has 3 carbon atoms and 2 hydroxyl groups, making it a diol. Compared with isopropyl alcohol, propylene glycol has one additional hydroxyl group; compared with glycerol, it has one fewer hydroxyl group. This structure places propylene glycol between monohydric alcohols and trihydric alcohols in terms of hydrogen-bonding sites and molecular polarity. It also allows propylene glycol to provide both a certain degree of water-binding ability and solubilizing capability in personal care formulations.

 

2.3 Glycerol: A Trihydric Three-Carbon Alcohol

Glycerol, also known as glycerin, has 3 carbon atoms and 3 hydroxyl groups in its molecule, making it a triol. Among these three molecules, glycerol has a relatively high number of hydroxyl groups and can provide multiple hydrogen-bonding sites. This structural feature gives it strong interactions with water and makes it important in moisturizing systems for personal care products.

 

3. How Structure Translates into Performance: Hydrogen Bonding, Volatility, Viscosity, and Solubility

3.1 Humectant Moisturization: Mainly Related to Hydroxyl Group Number, Hydrogen-Bonding Ability, and the Formulation Environment

An important function of humectant moisturizers is to form hydrogen bonds with water through polar groups such as hydroxyl groups, thereby helping the formulation system and the skin surface environment bind water. From a structure–property perspective, an increase in the number of hydroxyl groups usually means an increase in the number of sites available for hydrogen bonding with water, which can also enhance water-binding ability. Therefore, glycerol, propylene glycol, and isopropyl alcohol show clear differences in moisturizing tendency.

Ingredient	Number of Hydroxyl Groups	Ability to Form Hydrogen Bonds with Water	Humectant Moisturizing Tendency
Glycerol	3	Relatively strong	Relatively significant
Propylene glycol	2	Moderate	Moderate
Isopropyl alcohol	1	Relatively weak	Relatively weak

It should be noted that actual moisturizing performance is not determined solely by the number of hydroxyl groups. It is also affected by the addition level, ambient humidity, the composition of the aqueous phase, and the presence of paired ingredients such as oils, film-forming agents, and occlusive agents.

3.2 Volatility: Determined by Intermolecular Forces and Molecular Size

Volatility is closely related to intermolecular forces. The stronger the intermolecular forces, the more difficult it is for liquid molecules to escape from the surface; the weaker the intermolecular forces, the more pronounced the tendency to evaporate. Isopropyl alcohol has only 1 hydroxyl group, so its intermolecular hydrogen bonding is weaker than that of propylene glycol and glycerol. As a result, it is more volatile. Propylene glycol and glycerol contain more hydroxyl groups, leading to stronger intermolecular hydrogen bonding and relatively lower volatility.

Ingredient	Characteristics of Intermolecular Forces	Volatility Tendency	Performance After Application
Isopropyl alcohol	Monohydric; relatively weak intermolecular forces	Relatively high	Easy to create a fast-drying, low-residue feel
Propylene glycol	Dihydric; moderate intermolecular forces	Relatively low	Can continuously participate in the regulation of aqueous systems
Glycerol	Trihydric; relatively strong intermolecular forces	Low	More noticeable residue and lubricating feel

Volatility itself is neither an advantage nor a disadvantage; it is a physical property. In fast-drying products, it can create a refreshing feel. In moisturizing products, however, it may contribute to dryness and tightness.

3.3 Viscosity and Residual Feel: Determined by Intermolecular Hydrogen Bonding

As the number of hydroxyl groups increases, molecules are more likely to form stronger interactions with each other through hydrogen bonding. This usually increases liquid viscosity and enhances the residual feel after application. Glycerol contains 3 hydroxyl groups and has relatively strong intermolecular forces, so its viscosity and lubricating feel are more pronounced. Propylene glycol contains 2 hydroxyl groups and has lower viscosity than glycerol, giving it a relatively lighter sensory profile. Isopropyl alcohol has only 1 hydroxyl group and is relatively volatile, so it leaves little residue.

Ingredient	Viscosity and Residual Feel	Impact on Sensory Feel
Glycerol	Relatively high viscosity and noticeable residual feel	Increases lubricity, but may also cause tackiness
Propylene glycol	Moderate viscosity and lighter residual feel	Helps reduce the heaviness of a glycerol-only system
Isopropyl alcohol	Fast evaporation and low residual feel	Creates a fast-drying and refreshing feel, but provides insufficient moisturized feel

3.4 Solubility: Determined by Molecular Polarity and Affinity for Organic Phases

Alcohol molecules usually contain both polar hydroxyl groups and nonpolar hydrocarbon structures, giving them certain distinctive properties in solvent systems. However, different alcohols vary in polarity, hydrophilicity, and affinity for organic phases, so they are suited to different solvent-related tasks.

Propylene glycol has two hydroxyl groups, giving it good hydrophilicity while still retaining some affinity for organic phases. Therefore, in aqueous or hydroalcoholic systems, it is often used to improve the dissolution and dispersion of certain ingredients. Although isopropyl alcohol has only one hydroxyl group, its hydrocarbon portion accounts for a relatively larger share of the molecule, giving it some ability to dissolve certain oils and organic substances. At the same time, its relatively high volatility makes it suitable for solvent systems requiring low residue. Glycerol has three hydroxyl groups, strong hydrophilicity, and high viscosity, so it is more oriented toward humectant moisturization and lubricity. It can also participate in the dissolution of some water-soluble systems, but rapid evaporation and degreasing are not its main characteristics.

4. From Performance to Formulation: How to Choose Among the Three Types of Products

4.1 Moisturizing Products: Glycerol Provides Basic Moisturization, While Propylene Glycol Assists with Adjustment

In creams, body lotions, hand creams, sheet mask essences, and facial cleansers, glycerol is commonly used to provide basic moisturization and a lubricating feel. Its value lies in its clear water-binding ability, which can enhance the moist feel and moisturizing performance of a product. However, when glycerol is used at high levels, it can increase tackiness, stringiness, and heaviness. Therefore, actual formulations usually do not rely solely on glycerol; instead, they combine it with other ingredients to improve sensory feel.

Formulation Objective	Main Design Approach
Improve basic moisturization	Use humectants such as glycerol, propylene glycol, betaine, and sodium hyaluronate to establish water-binding ability
Improve dryness and roughness	Combine with emollients, occlusive agents, film-forming agents, or barrier-repair ingredients
Reduce tackiness	Control the level of glycerol and add propylene glycol, butylene glycol, or light-feel solvents to adjust spreadability
Improve long-lasting moisturization	Humectants provide water-binding ability, while oils, silicones, or film-forming agents help reduce water loss, creating a synergistic moisturizing effect

4.2 Toners, Serums, and Sheet Mask Essences: Propylene Glycol Supports Solubilization and System Uniformity

Toners, serums, sheet mask essences, wet wipe liquids, and cleansing or hair/body wash products often contain fragrances, botanical extracts, preservative components, or certain functional ingredients. These formulations require ingredients that can maintain compatibility in the aqueous phase while also helping certain components dissolve or disperse uniformly. In such systems, the value of propylene glycol is mainly reflected in the following aspects:

Formulation Requirement	Role of Propylene Glycol
Dispersion of active ingredients	Acts as a solvent or co-solvent to improve the dispersion state of certain components
Compatibility of fragrances and extracts	Helps certain organic components enter aqueous systems
Sensory adjustment	Reduces the thick and heavy feel of a glycerol-only system
System stability	Improves the uniformity of aqueous formulations
Auxiliary moisturization	Provides a certain degree of water-binding ability

4.3 Cleaning, Fast-Drying, and Disinfection-Related Products: Isopropyl Alcohol Provides Volatility, Degreasing, and Low Residue

Cleaning, fast-drying, and disinfection-related products require rapid spreading and drying, while reducing oil residues on the skin or object surfaces. The volatility and degreasing ability of isopropyl alcohol make it suitable for these functions. Common applications include: ① rinse-free hand sanitizers; ② disinfecting wipes; ③ cleaning sprays; ④ degreasing products; ⑤ nail care or tool-cleaning products; and ⑥ some quick-drying sprays or hair products.

In cosmetics and personal care products, isopropyl alcohol can be used as a solvent, viscosity modifier, defoaming agent, and more. However, its use requires control of dryness. With frequent use or use at high concentrations, the skin may experience dryness, tightness, or stinging. Therefore, products such as rinse-free hand sanitizers are often combined with glycerol, propylene glycol, panthenol, or other moisturizing and soothing ingredients to improve the post-use skin feel.

5. How to Judge the Roles of the Three Ingredients from an Ingredient List

5.1 First, Look at the Product Type

The same ingredient can have different meanings in different products. When making a judgment, the product type should be considered first.

Product Type	Common Role of Glycerol	Common Role of Propylene Glycol	Common Role of Isopropyl Alcohol
Creams, lotions, body lotions	Moisturization, lubricity	Auxiliary moisturization, solubilization	Usually not a core ingredient
Toners, serums, sheet mask essences	Moisturization	Solubilization, auxiliary moisturization, carrier	At low levels, may be used as a solvent or to create a refreshing skin feel
Shampoos, body washes, facial cleansers	Reduces dryness after washing	Moisturization, solubilization, support for preservative systems	Less commonly used for moisturizing purposes
Rinse-free hand sanitizers, disinfecting wipes	Helps reduce dryness	Auxiliary moisturization or solubilization	Fast drying, cleaning, disinfection-related functions
Cleaning sprays, degreasing products	Usually not the main functional ingredient	System support	Degreasing, volatility, fast drying

5.2 Then, Look at Ingredient Order

Ingredient order can help estimate approximate usage level and functional intensity. When glycerol appears relatively high in the ingredient list, the product usually has more noticeable moisturization and lubricity, but it may also be tackier. When propylene glycol appears relatively high in the ingredient list, it may simultaneously provide auxiliary moisturization, solubilization, and sensory adjustment. When isopropyl alcohol appears relatively high in the ingredient list, the product usually emphasizes volatility, freshness, degreasing, or disinfection-related functions, and it may be more likely to cause a dry feel.

Ingredient order can only be used to roughly judge the product design direction; it cannot be used to infer the exact addition level. The final sensory feel also depends on the combination of oils, thickeners, film-forming agents, surfactants, active ingredients, and fragrance systems.

5.3 Finally, Look at Paired Ingredients

Ingredient combinations often reveal the formulation design intent more clearly than a single ingredient alone.

Combination	Possible Indication
Glycerol + sodium hyaluronate + panthenol	Oriented toward moisturization, soothing, and improvement of dryness
Glycerol + oils + silicones	Glycerol provides water-binding ability, while oils and silicones help reduce water loss; overall, this indicates a richer moisturizing design
Propylene glycol + botanical extracts + fragrance	May serve as a solvent for extracts or fragrance components
Propylene glycol + preservative components	May help dissolve and disperse the preservative system
Isopropyl alcohol + water + thickener	Suggests a fast-drying gel or cleaning system
Isopropyl alcohol + glycerol	Provides fast drying while reducing dryness

6. Three Common Misunderstandings

6.1 Misunderstanding 1: Anything with “Alcohol” in Its Name Must Be Irritating

Glycerol, propylene glycol, and isopropyl alcohol all belong to alcohol-type compounds, but their structures and sensory profiles are completely different. Glycerol and propylene glycol are polyols and are commonly used for moisturization and solubilization. Isopropyl alcohol is a relatively volatile monohydric alcohol and is more commonly used in fast-drying, cleaning, and disinfection-related products. Whether an ingredient is irritating cannot be judged solely by whether its name contains “alcohol.” It also depends on the specific ingredient, concentration, product type, application area, and skin condition.

6.2 Misunderstanding 2: The More Glycerol, the Better the Moisturizing Effect

Glycerol has clear humectant moisturizing ability, but high use levels can cause tackiness, heaviness, and poor spreadability. For refreshing-type skincare products, the amount of glycerol needs to be balanced with the overall sensory profile. An effective moisturizing formulation usually does not rely on glycerol alone. Instead, it combines humectants, occlusive agents, emollients, and film-forming agents so that hydration, water retention, and sensory feel can all be achieved at the same time.

6.3 Misunderstanding 3: Propylene Glycol and Glycerol Can Be Freely Substituted for Each Other

Glycerol has stronger moisturizing ability, but it is also more likely to cause tackiness. Propylene glycol has weaker moisturizing ability, but its solubilizing and sensory-adjusting properties are more prominent. Replacing glycerol with propylene glycol may reduce the richness of moisturization. Replacing propylene glycol with glycerol may affect solubility, refreshing feel, and system stability. When substituting raw materials, solubility, viscosity, sensory feel, stability, and the target product type should all be considered comprehensively.

7. Classification and Application Tables for Alcohols and Related Moisturizing, Solubilizing, and Cleaning Raw Materials in Personal Care and Daily Chemical Formulations

Table 1. Core Alcohols and Volatile Solvents

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Triol moisturizing raw material	56-81-5	G116208	Glycerol	Molecular biology grade, ≥99%	A typical triol, suitable for studies on polyhydroxy structures, humectant moisturization, viscosity changes, and water-binding ability
Diol solubilizing and moisturizing raw material	57-55-6	P103430	1,2-Propanediol	AR, ≥99%	A typical diol, suitable for studies on auxiliary moisturization, co-solvent systems, active ingredient dispersion, and skin-feel adjustment
Volatile alcohol solvent	67-63-0	I119459	Isopropyl Alcohol (IPA)	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.5%	A typical volatile secondary alcohol, suitable for comparative studies on fast-drying, degreasing, cleaning, and alcohol-based disinfection systems
Volatile alcohol solvent	64-17-5	E299578	75% Disinfectant Alcohol	Moligand™, ≥75%, for disinfection	Suitable for studies on alcohol-based disinfection systems, hand-cleaning products, volatility, and dry-skin feel
Volatile alcohol solvent	71-23-8	P119680	n-Propanol	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.7%	A linear propanol, suitable for comparative studies on the volatility, solubility, and cleaning performance of propanol isomers
Aromatic alcohol solvent	100-51-6	B108202	Benzyl Alcohol	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.8%	An aromatic alcohol solvent, suitable for studies on fragrance solvents, preservative systems, and application differences between aromatic alcohols and aliphatic alcohols

Table 2. Diols, Polyols, and Polyether-Type Solubilizing and Moisturizing Raw Materials

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Diol solubilizing and moisturizing raw material	107-88-0	B119672	1,3-Butanediol	Anhydrous grade, ≥99%	A commonly used diol, suitable for studies on moisturization, solubilization, low-tack aqueous systems, and skin-feel adjustment
Diol solubilizing and moisturizing raw material	504-63-2	P432773	1,3-Propanediol	Suitable for synthesis	A three-carbon diol, suitable for comparative studies on structural differences, moisturizing performance, and solvent properties of propanediol isomers
Diol solubilizing and moisturizing raw material	25265-71-8	D105105	Dipropylene Glycol (isomer mixture) (DPG)	≥99%	A low-volatility diol solvent, suitable for studies on fragrance carriers, solubilizing systems, and volatility differences
Diol solubilizing and moisturizing raw material	24800-44-0	T106592	Tripropylene Glycol	≥97% (mixture of isomers)	A propylene glycol polymer-derived solvent, suitable for studies on low-volatility solvent systems, fragrance carriers, and ingredient compatibility
Diol solubilizing and moisturizing raw material	107-41-5	M108565	2-Methyl-2,4-pentanediol (MPD)	≥99%	A branched diol solvent, suitable for studies on solubilization, wetting, viscosity adjustment, and compatibility in aqueous formulations
Diol solubilizing and moisturizing raw material	2163-42-0	M141411	2-Methyl-1,3-propanediol	≥98%	A branched diol, suitable for studies on moisturization, solubilization, solvent replacement, and refreshing aqueous systems
Long-chain diol moisturizing synergist	5343-92-0	P108068	1,2-Pentanediol	≥98%	A carbon-chain-extended diol, suitable for studies on moisturization, preservative synergy, active ingredient solubilization, and water activity regulation
Long-chain diol moisturizing synergist	6920-22-5	H108067	1,2-Hexanediol	≥98%	A medium-chain diol, suitable for studies on moisturization, preservative synergy, and serum and sheet mask essence systems
Long-chain diol moisturizing synergist	1117-86-8	O108069	1,2-Octanediol	≥96%	A long-chain diol, suitable for studies on moisturization, preservative synergy, skin-feel improvement, and the influence of alcohol carbon-chain length
Long-chain diol moisturizing synergist	1119-86-4	D154360	1,2-Decanediol	≥98%	A long-chain diol, suitable for studies on preservative synergy and the effects of hydrophobic chains on solubility and antimicrobial performance
Polyether-type water-soluble solvent	25322-68-3	P103737	Polyethylene Glycol (PEG)	Average Mn 400	A water-soluble polyether, suitable for studies on solubilization, moisturization, active ingredient carriers, and hydrophilic solvent systems

Table 3. Sugar Alcohols, Polyhydroxy Moisturizers, and Natural Moisturizing Factor-Related Ingredients

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Natural moisturizing factor-related ingredient	28874-51-3	L303332	Sodium L-pyrrolidone-5-carboxylate	50% oily liquid	A natural moisturizing factor-related salt, suitable for studies on stratum corneum water binding, moisturizing systems, and water-retention ability
Sugar alcohol moisturizing raw material	87-99-0	X434315	Xylitol	Pharmaceutical grade	A polyhydroxy sugar alcohol, suitable for studies on moisturization, oral care, sugar alcohol structure, and water-binding ability
Sugar alcohol moisturizing raw material	50-70-4	D274374	D-Sorbitol	High purity, ≥99%	A polyhydroxy sugar alcohol, suitable for studies on moisturization, oral care, humectant systems, and water activity regulation
Sugar alcohol moisturizing raw material	69-65-8	M108829	D-Mannitol	Ultrapure grade, ≥99% (HPLC)	A polyhydroxy sugar alcohol, suitable for studies on moisturization, osmotic pressure regulation, sugar alcohol hygroscopicity, and stability
Sugar alcohol moisturizing raw material	149-32-6	E105712	meso-Erythritol	≥99%	A tetrahydroxy sugar alcohol, suitable for studies on refreshing moisturizing systems, sugar alcohol water-binding ability, and oral care
Polyhydroxy cyclic alcohol	87-89-8	I108336	Inositol	Moligand™, ≥99%	A polyhydroxy cyclic alcohol, suitable for studies on skin conditioning, scalp care, and the performance of polyhydroxy structures
Water-soluble moisturizing and conditioning ingredient	107-43-7	B105556	Betaine, anhydrous	Moligand™, ultrapure grade, ≥99%	An amphoteric small-molecule moisturizing ingredient, suitable for studies on osmotic pressure regulation, surfactant irritation mitigation, and moisturizing combinations
Natural moisturizing factor-related ingredient	57-13-6	U111897	Urea	AR, ≥99%	A natural moisturizing factor-related ingredient, suitable for studies on stratum corneum hydration, dry-skin care, and moisturizing efficacy evaluation
Acid-type moisturizing and regulating ingredient	50-21-5	L108841	DL-Lactic Acid	ACS, ≥85%	A natural moisturizing factor-related acid, suitable for studies on moisturization, pH adjustment, keratin care, and the influence of formulation acidity

Table 4. Soothing and Repairing Ingredients, Preservative Synergists, and Formulation Pairing Ingredients

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Panthenol-type moisturizing and soothing ingredient	16485-10-2	P117668	DL-Panthenol	≥99%	A panthenol-type ingredient, suitable for studies on moisturization, soothing effects, hair care, and combinations with alcohol-based moisturizing systems
Panthenol-type moisturizing and soothing ingredient	81-13-0	P107368	D-Panthenol	≥98%	A panthenol-type ingredient, suitable for studies on moisturization, soothing effects, barrier care, and skin and hair care formulations
Soothing and repairing pairing ingredient	97-59-6	A101660	Allantoin	≥98%	A skin-conditioning ingredient, suitable for studies on soothing effects, dry-skin discomfort care, and moisturizing system combinations
Preservative- and solvent-related ingredient	122-99-6	E109370	Phenoxyethanol	≥99%	An aromatic ether alcohol ingredient, suitable for studies on preservative systems, solvent systems, and preservative synergy with diols
Preservative synergist and skin-feel adjustment ingredient	70445-33-9	E156476	3-(2-Ethylhexyloxy)-1,2-propanediol	≥98% (GC)	A glyceryl ether-structured ingredient, suitable for studies on preservative synergy, skin-feel adjustment, deodorizing systems, and combinations with diols

Note: The above products are representative Aladdin products for scientific research, analysis, and formulation research. More information on product specifications, grades, and COA/SDS documents can be searched on the Aladdin website by “product name/CAS/catalog number.” Whether the relevant products can be used in cosmetics, disinfection products, or other finished-product manufacturing should be confirmed separately based on product grade, regulatory requirements, quality documents, and specific application scenarios.

References

[1] National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Summary for Isopropanol, CID 3776. PubChem. Accessed June 1, 2026.

[2] National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Summary for Propylene Glycol, CID 1030. PubChem. Accessed June 1, 2026.

[3] National Center for Biotechnology Information. PubChem Compound Summary for Glycerol, CID 753. PubChem. Accessed June 1, 2026.

[4] Fiume M M, Bergfeld W F, Belsito D V, et al. Safety Assessment of Propylene Glycol, Tripropylene Glycol, and PPGs as Used in Cosmetics. International Journal of Toxicology, 2012, 31(Suppl. 5): 245S–260S.

[5] Cosmetic Ingredient Review. Safety Assessment of Glycerin as Used in Cosmetics. Cosmetic Ingredient Review.

[6] European Commission. CosIng: Cosmetics Ingredients Database. European Commission.

[7] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hand Sanitizer Guidelines and Recommendations. Clean Hands, CDC. Updated March 12, 2024.

[8] Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Hand Sanitizer Facts. Clean Hands, CDC. Updated April 17, 2024.

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