Niacinamide Brightening Mechanisms and Formulation Design: Melanosome Transfer, pH Regulation, and Combination Strategies

1. The Efficacy of Niacinamide Depends on a Complete Causal Chain

When evaluating niacinamide products, attention is often focused first on the concentration used, while several conditions that come before concentration are easily overlooked: the molecular state in which niacinamide exists, whether it can remain stable in the formulation, whether it can enter the epidermis and reach its site of action, and whether the thickeners, electrolytes, and delivery systems in the formulation are mutually compatible.

The pathway by which niacinamide is translated from a raw material into skin benefits can be summarized as follows:

Molecular properties influence formulation design

→ Formulation structure influences chemical stability and skin delivery

→ Delivery status influences whether niacinamide can reach its sites of action and exert biological effects

→ Melanosome transfer, epidermal barrier function, and other related effects collectively influence the final skin response

This pathway shows that the amount of niacinamide added is only one variable in product design. Products containing the same concentration of niacinamide may still differ in stability, delivery behavior, and performance because of differences in pH, raw-material purity, rheological structure, and delivery system.

2. How the Molecular Properties of Niacinamide Influence Formulation and Delivery

2.1 What Is Niacinamide?

Niacinamide, also known as nicotinamide, is the amide form of vitamin B3. Its chemical name is pyridine-3-carboxamide. Its molecular formula is C₆H₆N₂O, and its relative molecular mass is 122.12.[1]

Molecular Property	Basic Property	Significance for Skincare Formulation
Molecular weight	122.12	Relatively small molecular size, which favors diffusion
Major functional groups	Pyridine ring, amide group	Able to form hydrogen bonds with water and has relatively high water solubility
Oil–water partitioning tendency	Clearly hydrophilic	Suitable for addition to the aqueous phase and unlikely to partition extensively into the oil phase
pKa of the conjugate acid of pyridine nitrogen	Approximately 3.35	Exists predominantly as a neutral molecule within the pH range commonly used in skincare products
Chemical stability	Sensitive to strong acids, strong bases, and strongly oxidative conditions	Formulations need to control pH, temperature, and storage conditions

The acid–base equilibrium of niacinamide can be simplified as:

Niacinamide-H⁺ ⇌ Niacinamide + H⁺ pKa ≈ 3.35

When the formulation pH is 5–7, the equilibrium is predominantly shifted toward uncharged niacinamide molecules. Therefore, niacinamide itself is generally not a major contributor to high ionic strength.

2.2 A Small Molecule Does Not Necessarily Mean High Skin Delivery

The stratum corneum is composed of corneocytes and a continuous intercellular lipid matrix. Niacinamide is a relatively small molecule, but because it is highly hydrophilic, it tends to remain in the aqueous phase of a formulation. To enter the lipid regions of the stratum corneum, it must partition between the aqueous and lipid phases.

Therefore, the concentration of niacinamide in a product cannot be taken as a direct measure of the effective dose entering the epidermis. Solvent composition, skin hydration, application amount, contact time, pH, and delivery carriers can all influence its partitioning into the skin.

3. Why Niacinamide Can Brighten the Skin

3.1 Skin Pigmentation Develops Through a Continuous Pathway

The visible expression of melanin is not determined by tyrosinase alone, but rather develops through the following processes:

1. Ultraviolet radiation, inflammation, or other signals activate melanocytes;

2. Tyrosinase and other related enzymes participate in melanin synthesis;

3. Melanin is formed and matures within melanosomes;

4. Melanosomes are transported toward melanocyte dendrites;

5. Melanosomes are transferred to keratinocytes; — the primary site of action of niacinamide 

6. Keratinocytes containing melanosomes migrate toward the upper layers of the epidermis, resulting in visible changes in skin tone.

3.2 Niacinamide Primarily Reduces Melanosome Transfer

Classic cellular studies have shown that niacinamide does not significantly inhibit the catalytic activity of mushroom tyrosinase and does not directly reduce melanin synthesis in melanocytes cultured alone. In melanocyte–keratinocyte co-culture models, however, niacinamide reduced melanosome transfer by approximately 35%–68%. Corresponding human studies also observed reductions in pigmentation and improvements in skin brightness.[4]

These findings indicate that the evidence-supported primary brightening pathway of niacinamide lies at the “transfer stage” of the pigmentation pathway, rather than through direct inhibition of tyrosinase.

3.3 Low-pH Formulations May Introduce Additional Pigment-Regulating Pathways

Recent research has further found that, in certain low-pH formulations, niacinamide may not only inhibit melanosome transfer but may also affect melanin synthesis, melanocyte dendritic morphology, and related gene expression. Low-pH niacinamide formulations have demonstrated relatively strong pigmentation-improving effects in both in vitro models and human studies.[7]

These findings suggest that the biological effects of niacinamide may be modulated by formulation pH. The effects observed in the studies reflect the combined formulation effect of low pH and niacinamide, and their applicability still depends on concentration, the method of acidification, dosage form, and stability.

4. What Roles Do Barrier Improvement and Sebum Regulation Play?

4.1 Barrier Improvement Provides Indirect Support for Brightening

Studies have shown that niacinamide can promote the synthesis of stratum corneum lipids such as ceramides, free fatty acids, and cholesterol by keratinocytes and can improve indicators related to epidermal barrier function.[5]

When the lipid structure of the stratum corneum is more intact, transepidermal water loss (TEWL) is reduced, and the skin’s tolerance to external irritation may also improve. When inflammation and barrier damage are brought under control, the conditions that sustain post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation may be correspondingly reduced.

Therefore, the barrier-related effects of niacinamide and its effects on melanosome transfer serve different functions:

① Regulation of melanosome transfer directly affects the distribution of pigment within the epidermis;

② Barrier improvement reduces the sustained effects of dryness and irritation on pigmentation problems.

4.2 Sebum Regulation Is Not the Same as Immediate Oil Absorption

A study using 2% niacinamide showed improvements in facial sebum excretion parameters in some participant populations, although the results were not entirely consistent across different populations and different measures of sebum production.[6]

The sebum-regulating effect of niacinamide is more consistent with long-term physiological regulation than with the immediate removal of surface oil by oil-absorbing powders. A product’s oil-control performance is also influenced by humectants, film-forming agents, powders, and the overall sensorial design of the formulation.

5. How pH Simultaneously Influences Stability, Delivery, and Efficacy

5.1 Niacinamide May Hydrolyze to Nicotinic Acid Under Harsh Conditions

Niacinamide is an amide compound. Under strongly acidic or strongly alkaline conditions, at elevated temperatures, or during prolonged storage, the amide bond may undergo hydrolysis:

Niacinamide + H₂O → Nicotinic acid + NH₃/NH₄⁺

Nicotinic acid and niacinamide produce different skin sensations. Higher levels of nicotinic acid may increase sensations of warmth, flushing, or stinging.

Technical guidelines for niacinamide raw materials provide a reference pH range of 4.0–8.0 for finished products and recommend avoiding high concentrations of strong acids, strong bases, and strong oxidizing agents.[3] This range is a raw-material compatibility recommendation and does not mean that all formulations within this range have the same level of stability.

The extent of hydrolysis depends on multiple factors: formulation pH; storage temperature and duration; water activity; buffer system; oxidative conditions; raw-material purity; and catalytic effects from other formulation components.

5.2 Higher Skin Flux Does Not Necessarily Correspond to Stronger Brightening Effects

A 2026 ex vivo skin study compared the delivery of 5 wt.% niacinamide at donor-phase pH 5.0 and pH 7.4. The results showed that niacinamide flux through ex vivo human skin and reconstructed epidermal models was higher at donor-phase pH 7.4 than at pH 5.0. The findings suggest that this difference was mainly associated with ionization of free fatty acids in the stratum corneum and changes in lipid organization, rather than with changes in the solubility of niacinamide itself.[8]

At the same time, studies of low-pH niacinamide formulations have observed relatively strong pigmentation-improving effects.[7]

These two sets of findings measure different endpoints:

Research Question	Evaluation Metrics	What It Can Show	What It Cannot Directly Show
Does pH affect skin delivery?	Skin flux, skin retention, changes in electrical resistance	pH can alter stratum corneum structure and niacinamide partitioning	Higher flux does not necessarily mean stronger clinical brightening
Do low-pH formulations enhance brightening?	Melanin, pigmented spots, gene expression, and human appearance	Certain low-pH formulations may enhance pigment-regulating effects	The findings cannot be generalized to all acidic formulations
Does pH affect stability?	Niacinamide and nicotinic acid content	Can indicate chemical changes during storage	Initial pH cannot replace long-term stability testing

5.3 Formulation pH Should Be Determined Based on Multiple Objectives

There is no single fixed pH for niacinamide that is suitable for all dosage forms. Formulation development needs to consider multiple factors simultaneously: long-term changes in niacinamide and nicotinic acid content; targeted skin benefits; the preservative system; the applicable ranges of emulsifiers and thickeners; product irritation potential; and packaging and storage conditions.

For niacinamide serums using conventional neutralized carbomers, formulation screening can initially be conducted at approximately pH 5.5–6.5. If the product contains acidic active ingredients or uses rheology modifiers that are tolerant of low pH, systems with a lower pH can also be developed, but additional data on niacinamide content, nicotinic acid formation, rheological stability, and human tolerability are required.

6. Is Niacinamide Suitable for Use with Carbomer?

6.1 There Is No General Incompatibility Between Niacinamide and Carbomer

Carbomers are crosslinked polyacrylic acid thickeners. Before neutralization, the carboxylic acid groups on the polymer have a relatively low degree of ionization, and the polymer network remains in a contracted state. After neutralization, the carboxylic acid groups are converted into carboxylates, and electrostatic repulsion between the negative charges causes the polymer to absorb water, expand, and develop viscosity.

The key equilibrium can be represented as:

—COOH ⇌ —COO⁻ + H⁺

Within the pH range commonly used in skincare products, niacinamide exists predominantly as a neutral molecule, so its direct electrostatic interference with carbomer is relatively limited. Raw-material technical literature also lists niacinamide as an ingredient suitable for use in gels and hydrocolloid systems.[3]

6.2 A Reasonable Processing Sequence

A conventional aqueous niacinamide–carbomer system may be evaluated on a small scale using the following sequence:

Deionized water

→ Disperse and fully hydrate the carbomer

→ Add pre-dissolved niacinamide

→ Slowly add the neutralizing agent and adjust the system to the target pH

→ Slowly add electrolyte-containing ingredients such as Zinc PCA

→ Fine-tune the final product pH if necessary

→ Deaerate and allow the formulation to stand

→ Recheck pH, viscosity, and appearance

When the salt content is relatively high, an electrolyte-tolerant carbomer or another electrolyte-tolerant rheology modifier may be selected, or ionic and nonionic thickeners may be combined to form a composite rheology system.[9]

7. How Niacinamide Can Be Combined with Zinc, Panthenol, and Liposomes

Combination	Design Objective	Main Mechanism	Formulation Considerations
Niacinamide + Zinc PCA	Broaden positioning for oily and blemish-prone skin products	Niacinamide focuses on barrier function, pigment transfer, and the sebum environment; zinc salts provide another set of functional directions	Divalent zinc ions increase ionic load and may cause viscosity loss in carbomer systems
Niacinamide + Panthenol	Increase moisturization, barrier support, and user comfort	Panthenol increases stratum corneum hydration and reduces transepidermal water loss	Panthenol is a nonionic, water-soluble ingredient and generally has less impact on the carbomer electrostatic network than zinc salts
Liposomal niacinamide	Modulate skin partitioning, epidermal retention, and release rate	Phospholipid vesicles can alter the contact and partitioning of niacinamide with the stratum corneum	Encapsulation efficiency, free fraction, leakage, and release data need to be confirmed

7.1 Niacinamide and Zinc PCA

Niacinamide and Zinc PCA can be combined in formulations targeting sebum, barrier function, and the needs of oily and blemish-prone skin. During formulation development, attention should be paid to the effect of the divalent ions introduced by Zinc PCA on the rheological network. It is recommended to add Zinc PCA slowly after the carbomer has been fully hydrated and neutralized and the system pH has been substantially adjusted to the target range, and then compare viscosity, yield value, and transparency before and after addition and after storage.

7.2 Niacinamide and Panthenol: Additional Support for Hydration and Tolerability

Panthenol can be converted to pantothenic acid after entering the skin. Human studies have shown that topical dexpanthenol can improve stratum corneum hydration and reduce transepidermal water loss.[10]

Niacinamide primarily supports stratum corneum lipid synthesis and barrier metabolism, whereas panthenol primarily supports hydration, softness, and barrier recovery. Their functions are therefore complementary. Actual use levels should be determined according to the product dosage form, tackiness, preservative system, and target population.

7.3 Liposomal Encapsulation: The Name Alone Cannot Substitute for Delivery Data

Liposomes consist of a phospholipid bilayer and an internal aqueous phase. Niacinamide is a small, hydrophilic molecule and, in theory, is distributed mainly in the internal aqueous phase of liposomes, at the phospholipid interface, and in the external continuous aqueous phase, rather than being extensively incorporated into the hydrophobic bilayer.

Therefore, the following situations may occur with niacinamide:

① Encapsulation efficiency may be limited;

② A relatively large amount of free niacinamide may remain in the external aqueous phase;

③ Niacinamide may leak from the vesicles into the external phase during storage;

④ Changes in particle size and surface charge may affect stability;

⑤ The actual release rate may not differ significantly from that of a conventional aqueous solution.

Clinical research has shown that chitosan-based cationic liposomes can improve the skin delivery of niacinamide formulations as well as parameters such as skin brightness and melanin index. However, these results correspond to a specific liposomal structure and preparation process and cannot be directly generalized to all liposomal niacinamide products.[11]

7.4 Parameters That Need to Be Verified During Formulation Development

Evaluation of the finished product should not be limited to initial pH and immediate viscosity. Depending on the product type, the following items are recommended for assessment: niacinamide and nicotinic acid content; changes in pH over storage time; viscosity, yield value, and thixotropic recovery; high- and low-temperature cycling and long-term stability; centrifugation, freeze–thaw, and light stability; preservative efficacy; packaging compatibility; and human patch testing and actual-use testing.

8. Representative Chemical Products Related to Niacinamide Brightening Mechanisms, Melanosome Transfer, pH Regulation, and Carbomer Compatibility Research

Table 1. Core Active Ingredients and Barrier-Supporting Products

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Core active ingredient	98-92-0	N108086	Niacinamide	≥99.5% (HPLC)	A core raw material for niacinamide formulation development, suitable for research on skin brightening, regulation of melanosome transfer, skin barrier function, and sebum-related formulations. It can also be used to evaluate stability under different concentrations, pH conditions, and storage conditions.
Core active ingredient	98-92-0	N434628	Niacinamide	PharmPure™, USP	Suitable for studies of raw-material purity, pharmacopeial quality requirements, and niacinamide formulation stability, as well as formulation development and quality evaluation of serums, gels, and emulsion systems.
Moisturizing and electrolyte ingredient	28874-51-3	L303332	Sodium L-pyrrolidone-5-carboxylate	50%, oily	A natural moisturizing factor-related ingredient that can be used in niacinamide moisturizing systems and skin hydration studies. As an ionic ingredient, it can also be used to investigate the effects of electrolyte load on carbomer viscosity and rheological structure.
Barrier-supporting ingredient	16485-10-2	P117668	DL-Panthenol	≥99%	Suitable for niacinamide–panthenol combination systems and for studies of stratum corneum hydration, barrier support, in-use tolerability, and stability of combination formulations.
Barrier-supporting ingredient	81-13-0	P107368	D-Panthenol	≥98%	Can be used in niacinamide formulations designed to support the skin barrier and for studies of skin hydration, transepidermal water loss, and post-irritation barrier recovery.
Barrier lipid	178436-06-1	C995092	Ceramide 3B	≥95%	Suitable for stratum corneum lipid and skin barrier models, as well as for studies of niacinamide-related effects on barrier lipids and niacinamide–ceramide combination systems.
Barrier lipid	60-33-3	L100441	Linoleic acid	Moligand™, ≥99% (GC)	A fatty acid relevant to stratum corneum and cell membrane lipid research, suitable for skin barrier lipid models, lipid organization studies, and research related to niacinamide skin delivery.

Table 2. Products Related to Melanin Formation, Melanosome Transfer, and Analytical Verification

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Reagent for cellular mechanism studies	98-92-0	N108087	Niacinamide	For cell culture, suitable for insect cell culture, ≥99.5% (HPLC)	Suitable for cellular-level studies of niacinamide mechanisms, including concentration-gradient studies, cell viability assays, melanin production, and melanosome transfer experiments in melanocytes, keratinocytes, and co-culture models.
Compound related to stability studies	59-67-6	N433036	Nicotinic acid	Suitable for synthesis, Moligand™	A product related to niacinamide hydrolysis that can be used for studies of the acid–base stability of niacinamide, degradation pathways, and nicotinic acid formation, as well as related method development and control studies.
Substrate for melanin synthesis	60-18-4	T656685	L-Tyrosine	Animal-origin free, low endotoxin, Moligand™, for cell culture, ≥99%	An upstream substrate in melanin biosynthesis that can be used in melanocyte culture, melanogenesis models, and studies of tyrosinase-related mechanisms.
Enzymology research reagent	9002-10-2	T128536	Tyrosinase, from mushroom	EnzymoPure™, ≥500 units/mg dry weight	Suitable for establishing tyrosinase activity assays and inhibitor-screening systems, evaluating the effect of niacinamide on the catalytic activity of mushroom-derived tyrosinase, and distinguishing its mechanism from that of typical tyrosinase inhibitors.
Pigment research reagent	8049-97-6	M329644	Melanin	Moligand™, Synthetic	Can be used for melanin spectroscopy, content determination methods, pigment dispersion, and related model studies, providing a reference material for melanogenesis and pigment quantification experiments.
Enzymatic reaction substrate	59-92-7	D111048	Levodopa	Moligand™, ≥99%	A commonly used reaction substrate in tyrosinase activity assays. Enzyme activity and the effects of test substances on tyrosinase reactions can be evaluated through dopachrome formation.
Positive control for tyrosinase inhibition	501-30-4	K105452	Kojic acid	≥99%	Exhibits typical tyrosinase-inhibitory activity and can be used as a positive control in enzyme activity assays to compare the melanosome-transfer mechanism of niacinamide with direct tyrosinase inhibition.
Analytical reference standard	98-92-0	N105043	Niacinamide	Analytical standard, ≥99.8%	Suitable for HPLC-based qualitative and quantitative analysis in niacinamide content determination, method validation, formulation stability studies, and degradation experiments.
Standard solution	98-92-0	BWY396895	Niacinamide solution in methanol	1000 μg/mL in methanol, uncertainty: 2%	Can be used for instrumental calibration of niacinamide analysis, establishment of calibration curves, method verification, and finished-product content determination, helping improve consistency across analytical batches.

Table 3. Products Related to Liposomes, Phospholipid Membranes, and Delivery Systems

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Delivery-system modification material	9012-76-4	C105802	Chitosan	Medium viscosity, 200–400 mPa·s	A cationic polysaccharide material that can be used for liposome surface modification, film formation, and skin-retention studies, and is suitable for the development of niacinamide carrier-delivery and sustained-release systems.
Lipid membrane-modifying ingredient	57-88-5	C104036	Cholesterol	For cell culture, ≥99% (GC)	A commonly used modulator of lipid bilayers that can alter membrane order, fluidity, and leakage characteristics, and can be used for niacinamide liposome formulation screening and storage-stability studies.
Natural phospholipid material	92128-87-5	P1456020	Hydrogenated phospholipids from non-GMO soybean	Natural, with 70% phosphatidylcholine	Can form phospholipid bilayers and be used in the development of niacinamide liposomes, phospholipid vesicles, and skin-delivery systems, including studies of particle size, encapsulation efficiency, and leakage during storage.
Natural phospholipid material	8002-43-5	P1456010	Phospholipids from sunflower (non-GMO)	Natural, with ≥60% phosphatidylcholine	A naturally derived phospholipid carrier material that can be used to construct niacinamide liposomes and phospholipid dispersion systems and to investigate encapsulation, skin deposition, and release behavior.
Defined phospholipid material	63-89-8	D130424	1,2-Dipalmitoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DPPC)	Moligand™, ≥99%	A phospholipid with a defined composition that can be used in niacinamide liposome models and for studies of phospholipid bilayer phase behavior, encapsulation efficiency, membrane stability, and release kinetics.
Defined phospholipid material	816-94-4	D130429	1,2-Distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphocholine (DSPC)	Moligand™, ≥99%	A long-chain saturated phospholipid that can be used to construct liposomal membranes with defined compositions and to study membrane compactness, niacinamide encapsulation and leakage, and the effects of different phospholipid compositions on delivery performance.

Table 4. Products Related to pH Adjustment, Carbomer Neutralization, and Rheological Systems

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Alkaline pH adjuster and neutralizing agent	1310-73-2	S111502	Sodium hydroxide	BP, European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.), NF, ≥98%, pellets	Used for pH adjustment of niacinamide formulations and carbomer neutralization, and can be used to investigate the effects of the degree of neutralization on polymer swelling, viscosity, and system stability.
Buffering and neutralizing agent	77-86-1	T110602	Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris base)	For cell culture, ≥99.9% (T)	Can be used in buffer systems, pH control in cellular experiments, and carbomer neutralization studies, and is suitable for comparing the effects of different neutralization approaches on the rheological properties of niacinamide systems.
pH adjuster	77-92-9	C755557	Anhydrous citric acid powder	Anhydrous grade, UltraBio™, ≥99.5% (T)	Used to lower the pH of niacinamide formulations and can also be combined with citrate salts to form buffer systems for studying the effects of pH on niacinamide stability, nicotinic acid formation, and rheological properties.
Organic amine neutralizing agent	102-71-6	T478536	Triethanolamine	Reagent grade, ≥98%	Can be used for carbomer neutralization and formulation pH adjustment and for studying the effects of different neutralizing agents on carbomer network expansion, viscosity development, and rheological stability during storage.
Nonionic cellulose thickener	9004-65-3	H108827	Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC)	USP 2910, 2% viscosity: 3 mPa·s, methoxy: 28–30%; hydroxypropyl: 7.0–12%	Can be used as a thickening material in niacinamide and electrolyte-containing systems and can also be combined with carbomer to form composite rheological systems for viscosity, film-forming, and stability studies.
Buffer salt and electrolyte	6132-04-3	T433112	Trisodium citrate dihydrate	European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.), suitable for analysis, ACS, high-purity grade	Can be combined with citric acid to form a buffer system and can also serve as a model electrolyte for studying the effects of buffer-salt concentration on carbomer charge screening, viscosity, and niacinamide formulation stability.
Polysaccharide rheology modifier	11138-66-2	G104873	Xanthan gum	PharmPure™, USP	Can be used for thickening, suspension, and composite rheology design in aqueous niacinamide systems and can also be combined with carbomer to study viscosity retention and thixotropic behavior in salt-containing systems.
pH adjuster	79-33-4	S485917	(S)-Lactic acid	PharmPure™, BP, European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.)	Can be used for pH adjustment in mildly acidic niacinamide systems and for studying the effects of acidic conditions on niacinamide chemical stability, nicotinic acid formation, and skin-delivery conditions.
Organic amine neutralizing agent	124-68-5	A755868	2-Amino-2-methyl-1-propanol	BioReagent, ≥95%	Can be used for carbomer neutralization and fine adjustment of finished-product pH and is suitable for studies of polyacrylic acid carboxyl-group ionization, gel formation, and rheological stability of niacinamide systems.
Nonionic cellulose thickener	9004-62-0	H434475	2-Hydroxyethyl cellulose (HEC)	Average Mw ~380,000	Can be used as a nonionic thickener in niacinamide and electrolyte-containing formulations and can also be combined with carbomer to study viscosity, suspension performance, and rheological behavior in the presence of salts.
Polyacrylic acid rheology modifier	9007-20-9	C299587	Carbomer 940 (Carbopol® 940 polymer)	—	A representative thickener for niacinamide compatibility studies that can be used to systematically investigate the effects of degree of neutralization, pH, salts, and divalent ions on polymer expansion, viscosity, transparency, and storage stability.

Note: The products listed above are representative Aladdin products related to scientific research. Specific applications should be determined in conjunction with product specifications, batch-specific Certificates of Analysis (COAs), and the intended reaction or evaluation system. Additional information on product specifications, grades, and COAs can be retrieved from the Aladdin website using the “product name/CAS/catalog number.”

References

[1] National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI). PubChem Compound Summary for CID 936, Nicotinamide. PubChem. Molecular formula: C₆H₆N₂O; molecular weight: 122.12 g/mol. Accessed 2026-08-07.

[2] European Chemicals Agency (ECHA). Nicotinamide—Registration Dossier: Dissociation Constant. pKa 3.35 at 20 °C. Accessed 2026-08-07.

[3] DSM Nutritional Products Ltd. Niacinamide PC: Formulation Guidelines. Last update: September 2023.

[4] Hakozaki T, Minwalla L, Zhuang J, Chhoa M, Matsubara A, Miyamoto K, Greatens A, Hillebrand GG, Bissett DL, Boissy RE. The effect of niacinamide on reducing cutaneous pigmentation and suppression of melanosome transfer. British Journal of Dermatology. 2002;147(1):20–31. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2133.2002.04834.x.

[5] Tanno O, Ota Y, Kitamura N, Katsube T, Inoue S. Nicotinamide increases biosynthesis of ceramides as well as other stratum corneum lipids to improve the epidermal permeability barrier. British Journal of Dermatology. 2000;143(3):524–531. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2133.2000.03705.x.

[6] Draelos ZD, Matsubara A, Smiles K. The effect of 2% niacinamide on facial sebum production. Journal of Cosmetic and Laser Therapy. 2006;8(2):96–101. doi:10.1080/14764170600717704.

7] Hakozaki T, Laughlin T, Zhao W, Deng G, Wang J, Moulton L. Synergistic effects of niacinamide and low pH on melanin synthesis, melanocyte function and hyperpigmentation: In vitro and clinical insights. International Journal of Cosmetic Science. 2026;48(2):445–455. doi:10.1111/ics.70044.

[8] Sjöberg T, Letasiova S, Jankovskaja S, Hrapovic N, Österlund C, Nilsson E, Engblom J, Spégel P, Björklund S. Effect of pH on niacinamide skin permeation. Scientific Reports. 2026;16:9821. doi:10.1038/s41598-026-41992-4.

[9] Lubrizol Life Science Health. Excipient Formulation and Processing Guide for Oral Liquid and Topical Dosage Forms. Lubrizol Advanced Materials, Inc.; 2020.

[10] Gehring W, Gloor M. Effect of topically applied dexpanthenol on epidermal barrier function and stratum corneum hydration. Results of a human in vivo study. Arzneimittelforschung. 2000;50(7):659–663. doi:10.1055/s-0031-1300268.

[11] Lee MS, Kim SJ, Lee JB, Yoo HS. Clinical evaluation of the brightening effect of chitosan-based cationic liposomes. Journal of Cosmetic Dermatology. 2022;21(12):6822–6829. doi:10.1111/jocd.15350.

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