Autophagy

Aging involves persistent dysregulation of nutrient sensing, energy metabolism, protein homeostasis, and chronic inflammation. IIS, mTOR, AMPK, NF-κB, and Sirtuins are interconnected through nodes including AKT, FOXO, ULK1, and NAD⁺ and jointly regulate cell growth, autophagy, stress ...

Lysosomes are core organelles for cellular catabolism and quality control. They are responsible for degrading materials derived from intracellular autophagy, extracellular endocytosis, phagocytosis, and macropinocytosis. In addition to degradation, lysosomes participate in nutrient sensing, mTOR ...

Autophagy is a cellular quality control system that delivers cytoplasmic components, damaged organelles, protein aggregates, or intracellular pathogens to lysosomes for degradation. Its core significance is not simply “increased degradation,” but rather the maintenance of cellular ...

Ubiquitination is a highly complex type of post-translational modification. Through the coordinated action of ubiquitin molecules, ubiquitin chain structures, the E1-E2-E3 enzymatic cascade, and deubiquitinating enzymes, this system regulates substrate protein stability, subcellular ...

Autophagy is the process by which lysosomes degrade and recycle unnecessary or damaged cellular components. This mechanism helps sustain energy production during nutrient deprivation, supporting cell survival under stress. Beyond its role in adaptation, autophagy can also function as a form of ...