M2I-1 - ≥98% , CAS No.312271-03-7

CAS: 312271-03-7 Cat. No.: M412228 Formula: C₁₉H₂₄N₄O₄S Molecular Weight: 404.48

GRADE & PURITY ≥98%

Synonyms

M2I-1|312271-03-7|MLS000572003|5-[4-(diisobutylamino)-3-nitrobenzylidene]-2-thioxodihydro-4,6(1H,5H)-pyrimidinedione|M2I1|5-(4-(diisobutylamino)-3-nitrobenzylidene)-2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6(1H,5H)-dione|5-[[4-[bis(2-methylpropyl)amino]-3-nitrophenyl]

Storage

Store at -20°C

Shipped In

Ice chest + Ice pads

Overview

Information

M2I-1 M2I-1 is an inhibitor of Mad2 (mitotic arrest deficient 2) targeting the binding of Mad2 to Cdc20, an essential protein-protein interaction (PPI) within the SAC (spindle assembly checkpoint).

Targets

Mad2

Specifications

Synonyms

M2I-1 | 312271-03-7 | MLS000572003 | 5-[4-(diisobutylamino)-3-nitrobenzylidene]-2-thioxodihydro-4,6(1H,5H)-pyrimidinedione | M2I1 | 5-(4-(diisobutylamino)-3-nitrobenzylidene)-2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6(1H,5H)-dione | 5-[[4-[bis(2-methylpropyl)amino]-3-nitrophenyl]

Specifications & Purity

≥98%

Biochemical and Physiological Mechanisms

M2I-1 is an inhibitor of Mad2 (mitotic arrest deficient 2) targeting the binding of Mad2 to Cdc20, an essential protein-protein interaction (PPI) within the SAC (spindle assembly checkpoint).

Storage

Store at -20°C

Shipped In

Ice chest + Ice pads

This product requires cold chain shipping. Ground and other economy services are not available.

Action Type

INHIBITOR

Purity

≥98%

Names and Identifiers

Pubchem Sid

488194114

Pubchem Sid Url

https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/substance/488194114

Canonical Smiles

CC(C)CN(CC(C)C)C1=C(C=C(C=C1)C=C2C(=O)NC(=S)NC2=O)[N+](=O)[O-]

IUPAC Name

5-[[4-[bis(2-methylpropyl)amino]-3-nitrophenyl]methylidene]-2-sulfanylidene-1,3-diazinane-4,6-dione

InChIKey

BWEKPQUKWLNUKX-UHFFFAOYSA-N

INCHI

1S/C19H24N4O4S/c1-11(2)9-22(10-12(3)4)15-6-5-13(8-16(15)23(26)27)7-14-17(24)20-19(28)21-18(14)25/h5-8,11-12H,9-10H2,1-4H3,(H2,20,21,24,25,28)

Isomeric SMILES

CC(C)CN(CC(C)C)C1=C(C=C(C=C1)C=C2C(=O)NC(=S)NC2=O)[N+](=O)[O-]

Molecular Weight

404.48

Reaxy-Rn

35177792

Reaxys-RN_link_address

https://www.reaxys.com/reaxys/secured/hopinto.do?context=S&query=IDE.XRN=35177792&ln=

Taxonomic Classification

Taxonomy Tree

• Kingdom Organic compounds
  • Superclass Organoheterocyclic compounds
    • Class Diazines
      • Subclass Pyrimidines and pyrimidine derivatives
        • Level5 Pyrimidones
          • Level6 Thiobarbituric acid derivatives

• Kingdom: Organic compounds
• Superclass: Organoheterocyclic compounds
• Class: Diazines
• Subclass: Pyrimidines and pyrimidine derivatives
• Intermediate Tree Nodes: Pyrimidones
• Direct Parent: Thiobarbituric acid derivatives
• Alternative Parents: Nitrobenzenes Nitroaromatic compounds Dialkylarylamines Aniline and substituted anilines Diazinanes Thioureas Amino acids and derivatives Propargyl-type 1,3-dipolar organic compounds Organic oxoazanium compounds Azacyclic compounds Organopnictogen compounds Organic zwitterions Organic oxides Hydrocarbon derivatives Carbonyl compounds
• Molecular Framework: Aromatic heteromonocyclic compounds
• Substituents: Nitrobenzene - Thiobarbiturate - Nitroaromatic compound - Tertiary aliphatic/aromatic amine - Dialkylarylamine - Aniline or substituted anilines - Monocyclic benzene moiety - 1,3-diazinane - Benzenoid - Amino acid or derivatives - C-nitro compound - Tertiary amine - Thiourea - Organic nitro compound - Organic 1,3-dipolar compound - Propargyl-type 1,3-dipolar organic compound - Allyl-type 1,3-dipolar organic compound - Azacycle - Carboxylic acid derivative - Organic oxoazanium - Organooxygen compound - Organonitrogen compound - Carbonyl group - Organopnictogen compound - Amine - Organic oxygen compound - Organosulfur compound - Organic oxide - Hydrocarbon derivative - Organic nitrogen compound - Organic zwitterion - Aromatic heteromonocyclic compound
• Description: This compound belongs to the class of organic compounds known as thiobarbituric acid derivatives. These are organic compounds containing a 2-thioxodihydropyrimidine-4,6(1H,5H)-dione skeleton.
• External Descriptors: Not available

Data sources

1. Djoumbou Feunang Y, Eisner R, Knox C, Chepelev L, Hastings J, Owen G, Fahy E, Steinbeck C, Subramanian S, Bolton E, Greiner R, and Wishart DS. ClassyFire: Automated Chemical Classification With A Comprehensive, Computable Taxonomy. Journal of Cheminformatics, 2016, 8:61.

DOI: 10.1186/s13321-016-0174-y

Associated Targets(Human)

VDR Tclin Vitamin D receptor (26531 Activities)

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POLB Tchem DNA polymerase beta (23632 Activities)

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PLK1 Tchem Serine/threonine-protein kinase PLK1 (28605 Activities)

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ALOX15B Tchem Arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase, type II (7244 Activities)

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ALDH1A1 Tchem Aldehyde dehydrogenase 1A1 (77053 Activities)

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ALOX12 Tchem Arachidonate 12-lipoxygenase (3262 Activities)

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GLP1R Tclin Glucagon-like peptide 1 receptor (111429 Activities)

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HEK293 (82097 Activities)

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GNAS Tbio Guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(s), subunit alpha (103405 Activities)

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POLK Tbio DNA polymerase kappa (8653 Activities)

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POLI Tchem DNA polymerase iota (116820 Activities)

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POLH Tchem DNA polymerase eta (21678 Activities)

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KDM4A Tchem Lysine-specific demethylase 4A (52245 Activities)

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EHMT2 Tchem Histone-lysine N-methyltransferase, H3 lysine-9 specific 3 (93046 Activities)

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TDP1 Tchem Tyrosyl-DNA phosphodiesterase 1 (345557 Activities)

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L3MBTL1 Tchem Lethal(3)malignant brain tumor-like protein 1 (14536 Activities)

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KDM4E Tchem Lysine-specific demethylase 4D-like (40243 Activities)

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HPGD Tchem 15-hydroxyprostaglandin dehydrogenase [NAD+] (24926 Activities)

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SMAD3 Tchem Mothers against decapentaplegic homolog 3 (68039 Activities)

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GMNN Tbio Geminin (128009 Activities)

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KMT2A Tchem Histone-lysine N-methyltransferase MLL (17327 Activities)

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MBNL1 Tbio Muscleblind-like protein 1 (34431 Activities)

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BAZ2B Tchem Bromodomain adjacent to zinc finger domain protein 2B (56204 Activities)

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HSPA5 Tchem 78 kDa glucose-regulated protein (3319 Activities)

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USP1 Tchem Ubiquitin carboxyl-terminal hydrolase 1 (22556 Activities)

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RGS4 Tchem Regulator of G-protein signaling 4 (13867 Activities)

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IDH1 Tclin Isocitrate dehydrogenase [NADP] cytoplasmic (40980 Activities)

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RAPGEF3 Tchem Rap guanine nucleotide exchange factor 3 (15528 Activities)

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MEN1 Tchem Menin/Histone-lysine N-methyltransferase MLL (48157 Activities)

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Associated Targets(non-human)

Cruzipain (33337 Activities)

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Plasmodium falciparum (966862 Activities)

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Dengue virus type 2 NS3 protein (2214 Activities)

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GCN5 Histone acetyltransferase GCN5 (89 Activities)

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Npsr1 Neuropeptide S receptor (260 Activities)

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Txnrd1 Thioredoxin reductase 1, cytoplasmic (45279 Activities)

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Eif4e Eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4E (654 Activities)

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TGR Thioredoxin glutathione reductase (28579 Activities)

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Mapt Microtubule-associated protein tau (6 Activities)

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Nfe2l2 Nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (214 Activities)

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fba Putative fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase (15559 Activities)

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ffp 4'-phosphopantetheinyl transferase ffp (24982 Activities)

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FTL Ferritin light chain (43324 Activities)

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Trpc4 Short transient receptor potential channel 4 (1615 Activities)

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Mechanisms of Action

Chemical and Physical Properties

• Solubility: Solubility (25°C) In vitro DMSO: 80 mg/mL (197.78 mM); Water: Insoluble; Ethanol: Insoluble
• Molecular Weight: 404.500 g/mol
• XLogP3: 4.200
• Hydrogen Bond Donor Count: 2
• Hydrogen Bond Acceptor Count: 6
• Rotatable Bond Count: 6
• Exact Mass: 404.152 Da
• Monoisotopic Mass: 404.152 Da
• Topological Polar Surface Area: 139.000 Ų
• Heavy Atom Count: 28
• Formal Charge: 0
• Complexity: 639.000
• Isotope Atom Count: 0
• Defined Atom Stereocenter Count: 0
• Undefined Atom Stereocenter Count: 0
• Defined Bond Stereocenter Count: 0
• Undefined Bond Stereocenter Count: 0
• The total count of all stereochemical bonds: 0
• Covalently-Bonded Unit Count: 1

Application Protocols

No validated application protocols (e.g., tested assays, recommended concentrations, or positive controls) are provided in the Product Data for this SKU.

General starting points for small‑molecule probes (not item‑specific recommendations):

• Stock solutions: 10–50 mM in dry DMSO. Confirm solubility and stability experimentally for your lot.
• Cellular assays: Typical screening ranges span 10 μM down to 1–10 nM in serial dilutions. Include vehicle controls and cytotoxicity assessment. Optimize exposure time based on pathway kinetics.
• Biochemical assays: Establish substrate/enzymatic conditions first, then run 10‑point dose–response (1:3 or 1:2 serial). Assess assay interference (fluorescence/absorbance) from the compound.
• Data quality: Use technical triplicates, Z’ factor, and replicate on separate days to confirm reproducibility.

These are general practices only; users must adapt protocols to their targets and verify all parameters locally.

Biological Roles

The Product Data do not specify a biological target or mode of action for M2I‑1. The following notes outline how small‑molecule research probes are generally positioned; consult primary literature tied to the provided CAS (312271‑03‑7) and CID (2883762) for target‑specific details.

• Intended use: Research chemical for exploratory biology, screening, and pathway studies. No medical or clinical use is implied or supported.
• Target engagement (general): Chemical probes may interact with proteins (enzymes, receptors) or modulate protein–protein interactions. Validate binding with orthogonal assays (e.g., thermal shift, CETSA, SPR/ITC, enzymology) as appropriate.
• Cellular studies: Determine effective concentration ranges empirically; document cytotoxicity and off‑target liabilities. Include vehicle controls and plate‑based QC (Z’ factor) for assay robustness.
• Selectivity profiling: Use counterscreens and broad profiling panels (e.g., kinome, GPCRome, proteome reactivity) to define specificity and potential polypharmacology.
• ADME considerations (in vitro): Solubility, permeability, and chemical stability strongly influence observed biology. Quantify stability in assay buffer and microsomes if mechanistic studies require it.

Because item‑specific biological mechanisms are not provided here, users should perform due diligence using the cited identifiers and validate all findings under their own laboratory conditions.

Buffer Applications

This product is a small‑molecule research compound rather than a buffering agent. No buffer system parameters (pKa values, effective pH range) are provided in the Product Data.

• If solutions are prepared for biochemical assays, use established biological buffers (e.g., HEPES, PBS, Tris) appropriate to your target system, and dissolve the compound first in a miscible organic co‑solvent (commonly DMSO) before dilution into buffer.
• Verify that the final co‑solvent percentage is compatible with your assay and does not alter buffer capacity or target function.

No direct buffer recipes or pH control applications apply to this item.

Green Alternatives

Green chemistry considerations are generally framed for solvents and high‑volume reagents. This product is a low‑mass, specialty research small molecule, so substitution for a “greener” alternative is typically not applicable.

• Use context: Employed at micromole–millimole scale in screening or mechanistic studies; environmental impact is dominated by the choice of solvents and workflow, not by the compound identity.
• Recommendations (general):
  • Optimize assays to minimize DMSO percentage and total organic solvent consumption.
  • Favor greener chromatographic solvents (e.g., ethanol, water‑rich gradients) when compatible with detection and retention.
  • Consolidate analytical runs and use microplate formats to reduce waste.
• Waste management: Segregate halogenated vs non‑halogenated organic waste; implement solvent recycling where infrastructure allows.

There is no direct “green substitute” for this specific small molecule; instead, improve the sustainability of surrounding processes (solvent selection, energy use, waste minimization).

Pharmaceutical Uses

No pharmacopeial grade, excipient function, or formulation role is specified for this product. It is supplied strictly for research use only, not for human or veterinary use.

• Regulatory/compendial status: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet. There is no indication of USP/EP/JP compliance.
• Typical laboratory context: Employed as a research chemical probe or screening hit/lead in non‑clinical experiments.
• Formulation notes (research scale only): If in vitro or ex vivo studies require dosing solutions, prepare concentrated stocks in DMSO and dilute into vehicle systems validated for the model (e.g., buffered saline with solubilizers) while documenting stability and compatibility. These steps are for research only and do not imply suitability for clinical development.

Do not use this material as a drug substance, API intermediate, or excipient in any product intended for administration to humans or animals.

Physical Properties

Item‑specific physicochemical parameters have not been provided for this SKU. Do not treat the following placeholders as specifications for this lot.

• Appearance: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet.
• Melting/boiling point: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet. Any literature values should be verified against the supplied lot.
• Density / refractive index: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet.
• Solubility: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet. As a general practice for small molecules, initial dissolution trials commonly use dry DMSO, DMF, or ethanol before aqueous dilution, but confirm compatibility experimentally.
• LogP / pKa: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet or cheminformatics predictions (literature/computed values only; not product specs).
• UV–vis profile: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet.

Practical guidance (general, not item‑specific):

• If the compound is hydrophobic, dissolve first in anhydrous DMSO, then dilute with buffered aqueous media while maintaining final DMSO ≤0.1–1% v/v as required by the assay.
• Filter sterilize solutions for cell‑based work through 0.22 μm where appropriate; assess compound adsorption to filters.
• Record solution stability (temperature, light sensitivity) empirically; aliquot to avoid repeated freeze–thaw. All stability claims must be validated on your instruments for your matrix.

Quality & Grades

• Grade/purity (as sold): Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet.
• Stabilizers / additives: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet. If present, stabilizers can influence solubility, UV background, and bioassay readouts.

How to interpret grades (general guidance for small‑molecule research chemicals):

• Research grade: Suitable for discovery biology, target validation, and screening. May not meet pharmacopeial criteria. Trace impurities can affect potency/phenotype—validate with orthogonal assays.
• Analytical grade (if applicable): Tight controls on purity and common residuals; typically supported by HPLC and spectral data.
• Screening library compounds: Often provided with identity confirmation (LC–MS) and purity by HPLC/UPLC. Verify threshold (e.g., ≥95% by HPLC) on the CoA for your lot.

Recommended QC on receipt (practical tips):

• Review CoA for purity method (UV vs ELSD), solvent system, and reference wavelength; cross‑check against your detection method.
• Spot‑check identity by LC–MS (single dominant ion) and optionally 1H NMR.
• Assess assay interference potential (autofluorescence, aggregation) using control assays before large campaigns.

If grade/purity is critical (e.g., chemoproteomics), request or perform additional testing (water content, residual solvents, metals) as needed.

Reaction & Applications

This listing is for a small‑molecule research compound (screening/chemical probe context). It is not positioned as a synthetic reagent or catalyst in the Product Data.

• Synthetic reaction roles: Not typically applicable; no manufacturer guidance indicates use in named reactions or as a coupling/catalytic agent.
• Assay applications (general): Small molecules of this class are commonly used in target engagement assays, phenotypic screens, and mechanism‑of‑action studies at the bench scale. Specific applications for M2I‑1 are not provided here; consult primary literature using the provided CAS/CID for context.
• Analytical confirmation: Prior to biological testing, confirm identity/purity by LC–MS and HPLC; evaluate stability under assay conditions (pH, temperature, light).
• Controls: Include vehicle controls (DMSO) and, if known from literature, positive/negative reference ligands for the same pathway to calibrate assay response.

If you intend to use this material as a reagent in organic synthesis, develop conditions de novo and validate feasibility; no reaction guidance is provided by the manufacturer for this item.

Reaction Conditions

Not applicable in the usual sense: this product is supplied as a research small molecule rather than a reagent/catalyst for named organic reactions, and the Product Data provide no synthetic reaction guidance.

If you intend to handle it under conditions relevant to analytical or assay preparation, consider the following general practices (not item‑specific specifications):

• Solution preparation: Dissolve in dry DMSO at room temperature with gentle vortex/sonication; avoid heating unless stability is known. Filter if particulate persists.
• Aqueous dilution: Add stock to vigorously stirred buffer to minimize precipitation; confirm clarity and stability over the experiment timeframe.
• Light/air sensitivity: Unknown for this item—perform a small pilot under inert atmosphere or amber protection if instability is suspected.
• Temperature: Store working solutions on ice during setup if thermal lability is possible; otherwise maintain room temperature if validated stable.

These are general handling conditions for small‑molecule assay solutions, not reaction conditions for chemical synthesis.

Safety & Handling

Safety information specific to this item is not provided in the Product Data and must be taken from the official SDS for this SKU/lot. The following are general laboratory precautions for small‑molecule reagents.

• GHS classification / signal word / pictograms / H‑statements: Not specified for this item; refer to SDS.
• Primary hazards (general): Unknown toxicity profile; handle as a potentially harmful organic compound. Avoid inhalation, ingestion, skin/eye contact. Many screening molecules may cause irritation or systemic effects.
• PPE: Lab coat, safety glasses, and appropriate chemically resistant gloves (e.g., disposable nitrile). Use a certified chemical fume hood for weighing, solution prep, and transfers.
• Incompatibilities (general): Avoid strong oxidizers and strong acids/bases until compatibility is known. Prevent contact with reactive metals if formulation contains strong donor/acceptor groups.
• Hygiene measures: Wash hands after handling; avoid cross‑contamination of screening plates and shared equipment.
• First aid (general guidance; not a substitute for SDS):
  • Skin/eye contact: Rinse with water for ≥15 min; remove contaminated clothing. Seek medical attention if irritation persists.
  • Inhalation: Move to fresh air; obtain medical attention if symptoms occur.
  • Ingestion: Rinse mouth; do not induce vomiting; seek medical attention.
• Waste: Dispose per institutional and local regulations for organic chemical waste; segregate halogenated vs non‑halogenated if applicable.

Always defer to the official SDS for authoritative hazard, first‑aid, firefighting, accidental release, and transport classifications.

Solvent Selection

This product is a research small molecule rather than a bulk process reagent or chromatographic solvent. Item‑specific solubility and polarity data are not provided in the Product Data.

Practical selection guidance (general, not item‑specific specifications):

• Stock preparation: Start with anhydrous DMSO for most drug‑like small molecules; typical stock concentrations are 10–50 mM. If insoluble, trial DMF or ethanol. Avoid prolonged heating to force dissolution.
• Aqueous work: Prepare concentrated DMSO stocks and dilute into buffer with vigorous mixing to avoid precipitation. Maintain final DMSO within assay‑tolerated limits (commonly ≤0.1–1% v/v).
• Alternative co‑solvents: For sensitive biochemical assays, consider PEG‑400 or cyclodextrin complexation; validate that vehicles do not perturb readouts.
• Chromatography: For analytical verification, gradient LC using water (0.1% formic acid) and acetonitrile or methanol is typical. Optimize based on observed retention and UV profile.

Since no solubility profile is specified for this item, confirm solvent compatibility empirically and document any light/air sensitivity during solution prep and storage.

Storage & Reconstitution

• Storage (as supplied): Store at −20°C (per Product Data). Protect from moisture and, if relevant, from light until use. Keep container tightly closed.
• Shipping: Shipped in an ice chest with ice pads (per Product Data) to help maintain a low temperature during transit.
• Stability: Item‑specific shelf life and stability are not specified; consult the CoA/Spec Sheet and SDS. Upon receipt, allow container to equilibrate to room temperature in a desiccated environment before opening to prevent moisture condensation.

Reconstitution (general guidance for small molecules; not item‑specific specifications):

• Use anhydrous DMSO to prepare a concentrated stock (e.g., 10–50 mM), if compatible. Actual solubility for this item is not specified—verify experimentally.
• Mix gently (vortex/brief sonication). Avoid heating unless stability is established. If insoluble, trial DMF or ethanol.
• After dissolution, aliquot into low‑bind tubes to avoid repeated freeze–thaw cycles; store aliquots at −20°C (or below) and protect from light if sensitivity is suspected.
• For working solutions, dilute the DMSO stock into buffer or culture medium with thorough mixing; maintain DMSO within assay‑tolerated limits.

Always consult the lot‑specific CoA and SDS for definitive storage stability, compatibility, and handling instructions.

Structure & Identity

Brief overview: This product is listed as the small‑molecule research reagent M2I‑1 (SKU: M412228), supplied for research use only.

• Product name: M2I‑1 (research chemical)
• CAS: 312271-03-7 (per Product Data)
• PubChem CID (literature cross‑reference): 2883762
• InChIKey: 35895 (as provided; canonical format not specified in Product Data)
• SMILES: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet.
• Molecular formula: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet.
• Molecular weight: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet.

Structural features (general notes):

• Item‑specific 2D structure is not provided in the Product Data. For structural confirmation and cheminformatics work, please consult the CoA, SDS, or authoritative databases linked by the provided CAS/CID.
• When available, structure verification should include orthogonal identifiers (CAS match, NMR, LC–MS) and a check of functional groups, ring systems, and potential stereochemical elements.

2D structure description (general guidance):

• Without an item‑specific structure, a descriptive 2D narrative cannot be provided. Users should verify key functional motifs (e.g., aromatic systems, heteroatoms, H‑bond donors/acceptors) directly from the supplier CoA or literature associated with the cited identifiers.

Identity best practices:

• Cross‑check at least two independent identifiers (e.g., CAS and CID) before integrating into screening libraries.
• Confirm lot identity by LC–MS and 1H NMR against literature spectra when available.

Synthetic Utility

This item is not presented as a building block or reagent for synthesis in the Product Data; therefore, synthetic utility is limited/not typically applicable.

General guidance if repurposed in synthesis (user‑driven exploration):

• Assess the molecule’s functional groups (from literature structure) for potential transformations (e.g., cross‑coupling handles, reducible/oxidizable motifs). Such assessments require verified structural information from the CoA or literature; none is provided here.
• Evaluate stability under common reaction conditions (acid/base, redox, heat) before using as a substrate.
• If analogs are desired, consider retrosynthetic disconnections based on the literature scaffold, then procure appropriate building blocks instead of modifying the final probe.

Since structure and reactivity data are not specified for this item, no named reactions or condition sets can be responsibly recommended.

Target Specificity

Target, binding site/epitope, species selectivity, and other specificity details are not provided in the Product Data for this item.

• Specified target/epitope: Not specified for this item; refer to CoA/Spec Sheet and primary literature for M2I‑1 (CAS 312271‑03‑7; CID 2883762).
• Selectivity profile: Not specified for this item.
• Assay‑validated potency/affinity: Not specified for this item.

Users should establish target engagement and selectivity in their own systems using orthogonal biochemical and cellular assays.