Technical articles
Type Stratification, Signal Transduction, and Effector Networks of the Interferon (IFN) Pathway
Type Stratification, Signal Transduction, and Effector Networks of the Interferon (IFN) Pathway
The interferon (IFN) pathway is one of the central signaling systems in host antiviral defense, innate immune activation, and immune homeostasis. Its biological essence is not a single ligand triggering a single receptor, but a multilayered network composed of “pathogen sensing - IFN induction - receptor signaling - interferon-stimulated gene (ISG) expression - negative-feedback restraint.” In life science research, the importance of IFN signaling extends beyond anti-infective defense and also encompasses inflammatory amplification, tumor immunity, tissue injury, and autoimmune-associated pathological states.
Keywords: interferon; type I interferon; type II interferon; type III interferon; JAK-STAT; ISGF3; interferon-stimulated genes; innate immunity
1. IFN Family and Pathway Framework
1.1 Stratification of the IFN Family
(1) Type I interferons
Type I interferons mainly include IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-ω, IFN-κ, and IFN-ε, among which IFN-α and IFN-β are the most intensively studied. Type I IFNs constitute the core axis of broad-spectrum antiviral responses and are characterized by rapid induction, broad activity, and extensive cellular coverage.
(2) Type II interferon
Type II interferon consists only of IFN-γ. In terms of source, function, and signaling bias, it differs from type I IFNs and is more strongly associated with immune regulation, macrophage activation, enhancement of antigen presentation, and control of intracellular pathogens.
(3) Type III interferons
Type III interferons mainly include IFN-λ1, IFN-λ2, IFN-λ3, and IFN-λ4. Their downstream signaling architecture is highly similar to that of type I IFNs, but receptor distribution is more restricted, especially to epithelial barrier-associated tissues. Accordingly, they are particularly important in respiratory, intestinal, and mucosal barrier immunity.
1.2 Hierarchical Structure of the Pathway
(1) Induction layer
After host cells recognize viral nucleic acids, bacterial components, or aberrant intracellular nucleic acids through pattern-recognition receptors, transcription factors such as IRF3, IRF7, and NF-κB are activated to drive IFN gene transcription.
(2) Receptor signaling layer
Secreted IFNs act in an autocrine or paracrine manner on cell-surface receptors, activating the JAK-STAT axis and forming transcriptional complexes such as ISGF3 or GAF.
(3) Effector layer
Following receptor activation, a large number of ISGs are induced to mediate inhibition of viral replication, nucleic acid degradation, translational blockade, membrane fusion restriction, immune-cell recruitment, and enhancement of antigen presentation.
(4) Restraint layer
SOCS, USP18, PIAS, protein phosphatases, and receptor internalization collectively form a negative-feedback system that limits sustained IFN pathway activation and prevents tissue injury and chronic inflammation.
Table 1. Basic Comparison of the Three Major IFN Types
Type | Representative Members | Major Receptors | Functional Orientation | Tissue/Cellular Range Characteristics |
Type I IFN | IFN-α, IFN-β | IFNAR1/IFNAR2 | Broad antiviral defense and rapid innate immune activation | Receptors are widely distributed, with broad activity range |
Type II IFN | IFN-γ | IFNGR1/IFNGR2 | Immune regulation, macrophage activation, enhancement of antigen presentation | More strongly associated with immune cells and inflammatory microenvironments |
Type III IFN | IFN-λ1/2/3/4 | IFNLR1/IL10R2 | Antiviral defense at mucosal and epithelial barriers | Receptor distribution is more restricted and biased toward epithelial systems |
2. Upstream Induction Mechanisms
2.1 Pattern-Recognition Receptors
(1) RIG-I-like receptor pathway
RIG-I and MDA5 are the core cytosolic receptors for viral RNA recognition. RIG-I preferentially recognizes short double-stranded RNA and viral RNA bearing 5'-triphosphate features, whereas MDA5 preferentially recognizes long double-stranded RNA. Upon activation, both signal through MAVS to recruit downstream signaling complexes, driving TBK1 and IKKε activation and thereby promoting IRF3 and IRF7 phosphorylation.
(2) Toll-like receptor pathway
TLR3, TLR7, TLR8, and TLR9 recognize distinct types of pathogen-derived nucleic acids. TLR3 mainly activates IRF3 through TRIF, whereas TLR7/8/9 more commonly activate IRF7 and NF-κB through MyD88. This pathway is particularly important in dendritic cells and endosomal sensing systems.
(3) cGAS-STING pathway
Cytosolic DNA can be recognized by cGAS, which catalyzes cGAMP production and subsequently activates STING. STING then recruits TBK1 and promotes IRF3 nuclear translocation, inducing IFN-β and related genes. This pathway is critical in DNA virus infection, mitochondrial DNA leakage, tumor immunity, and sterile inflammation.
2.2 Integration of Transcription Factors
(1) IRF3 and IRF7
IRF3 is a key transcription factor in early IFN induction, with a particularly prominent role in the initial transcription of IFN-β. IRF7 functions more as an amplifier and, once the type I IFN positive-feedback loop is established, markedly enhances expression of the IFN-α family.
(2) NF-κB
NF-κB participates in the coordinated regulation of inflammatory genes and part of the IFN-associated gene program. Its role is not merely accessory; rather, it cooperates with the IRF family to establish a transcriptionally permissive environment at interferon promoters.
(3) AP-1
AP-1 participates in the assembly of IFN-inducing complexes under certain viral infections and stress conditions, particularly by assisting the integration of inflammatory transcription and IFN transcription.
Table 2. Common Upstream Recognition Routes in IFN Induction
Recognition System | Major Ligands Recognized | Key Adaptor | Major Downstream Transcription Factors | Major Output |
RIG-I | 5'-triphosphate RNA, short dsRNA | MAVS | IRF3, NF-κB | Type I IFNs, inflammatory cytokines |
MDA5 | Long dsRNA | MAVS | IRF3, NF-κB | Type I IFNs |
TLR3 | Endosomal dsRNA | TRIF | IRF3, NF-κB | IFN-β, inflammatory cytokines |
TLR7/8 | ssRNA | MyD88 | IRF7, NF-κB | IFN-α, inflammatory cytokines |
TLR9 | CpG DNA | MyD88 | IRF7, NF-κB | Type I IFNs |
cGAS | Cytosolic DNA | STING | IRF3, NF-κB | Predominantly IFN-β |
3. Receptor Complexes and Canonical Signal Transduction
3.1 Type I IFN Receptor Pathway
(1) Receptor composition
Type I IFNs primarily signal through the IFNAR1/IFNAR2 receptor complex.
(2) JAK activation
Upon receptor engagement, JAK1 and TYK2 are activated and subsequently phosphorylate STAT1 and STAT2.
(3) ISGF3 formation
Phosphorylated STAT1 and STAT2 associate with IRF9 to form the ISGF3 complex, which translocates into the nucleus and binds ISRE elements to induce large-scale ISG expression.
(4) Functional orientation
This pathway is the core signaling axis underlying type I IFN antiviral effects and is the principal source of viral replication restriction, translational suppression, and broad innate immune amplification.
3.2 Type II IFN Receptor Pathway
(1) Receptor composition
IFN-γ transduces signals through the IFNGR1/IFNGR2 receptor complex.
(2) JAK activation
This pathway mainly depends on JAK1 and JAK2 and subsequently drives robust STAT1 phosphorylation.
(3) GAF formation
Phosphorylated STAT1 forms a homodimer, namely GAF (gamma-activated factor), which enters the nucleus and binds GAS elements to drive a gene program centered on immune regulation and antigen presentation.
(4) Functional orientation
IFN-γ more strongly emphasizes macrophage activation, enhancement of MHC expression, improvement of pathogen clearance capacity, and support of T cell-associated immune programs.
3.3 Type III IFN Receptor Pathway
(1) Receptor composition
Type III IFNs signal through the IFNLR1/IL10R2 receptor complex.
(2) Signaling characteristics
Their downstream signaling still primarily depends on JAK1, TYK2, STAT1, STAT2, and IRF9, and is therefore highly similar to type I IFN signaling at the molecular level.
(3) Biological characteristics
Because IFNLR1 expression is concentrated mainly in epithelial cells and certain barrier-associated tissues, the effects of type III IFNs are more localized to barrier immunity and are less likely to induce systemic inflammatory amplification.
Table 3. Core Differences in IFN Receptor Signaling
Type | Receptors | Major JAKs | Core STAT Complex | Major DNA Element | Functional Bias |
Type I IFN | IFNAR1/2 | JAK1, TYK2 | STAT1-STAT2-IRF9 (ISGF3) | ISRE | Broad antiviral defense |
Type II IFN | IFNGR1/2 | JAK1, JAK2 | STAT1 homodimer (GAF) | GAS | Immune regulation, macrophage activation |
Type III IFN | IFNLR1/IL10R2 | JAK1, TYK2 | Predominantly ISGF3 | ISRE | Epithelial barrier antiviral defense |
4. Interferon-Stimulated Gene Networks
4.1 Functional Positioning of ISGs
ISGs are not a single-function gene group, but rather a broad effector network covering antiviral activity, nucleic acid degradation, translational inhibition, membrane fusion blockade, immune regulation, metabolic remodeling, and control of cell growth. The actual functional output of the IFN pathway is largely executed through ISGs.
4.2 Representative Antiviral Effector Molecules
(1) PKR
PKR can be activated by double-stranded RNA and suppress protein translation by phosphorylating eIF2α, thereby restricting viral protein synthesis.
(2) OAS-RNase L axis
Once activated by viral RNA, OAS family members generate 2'-5' oligoadenylates, which in turn activate RNase L, leading to RNA degradation and establishment of an antiviral state.
(3) Mx proteins
Mx1/MxA and related GTPases interfere with viral nucleocapsid trafficking, formation of replication complexes, and assembly of viral particles.
(4) IFIT family
These proteins recognize aberrant cap structures or virus-specific nucleic acid features and inhibit viral RNA translation.
(5) IFITM family
These proteins mainly restrict viral entry and membrane fusion and are especially important in infections by enveloped viruses.
(6) ISG15
ISG15 can function both as a ubiquitin-like modifier in ISGylation and as a secreted immunoregulatory factor participating in inflammatory and antiviral regulation.
(7) Viperin
Viperin participates in lipid metabolic remodeling, inhibition of viral replication, and amplification of innate immunity.
(8) Tetherin
Tetherin can restrict the release of viral particles from the cell surface and is particularly representative during the budding stage of enveloped viruses.
Table 4. Common ISGs and Their Major Functions
ISG | Major Function | Functional Level |
PKR | Inhibits translation | Restriction of viral protein synthesis |
OAS1/2/3 | Activates RNase L | RNA degradation |
MX1/MXA | Interferes with replication and assembly | Inhibition across the viral life cycle |
IFIT1/2/3 | Recognizes aberrant RNA and inhibits translation | Viral RNA recognition |
IFITM1/2/3 | Inhibits membrane fusion and entry | Restriction of viral entry |
ISG15 | Protein modification and immune regulation | Antiviral activity and immune amplification |
RSAD2 (Viperin) | Antiviral activity and metabolic remodeling | Multilevel suppression |
BST2 (Tetherin) | Blocks viral budding | Restriction of viral release |
5. Negative Feedback and Dynamic Regulation
5.1 Negative Regulation at the Receptor and JAK-STAT Levels
(1) SOCS family
SOCS1 and SOCS3 suppress JAK kinase activity and thereby limit sustained STAT phosphorylation.
(2) USP18
USP18 is one of the most important negative regulators of type I IFN signaling. In addition to participating in ISG15-related deconjugation, it can bind IFNAR2 and suppress persistent receptor responsiveness to type I IFNs.
(3) Protein phosphatases
Members of the SHP family and related phosphatases can terminate signaling by dephosphorylating STATs or upstream kinases.
5.2 Biological Significance of Dynamic Regulation
(1) Transient activation is favorable for antiviral defense;
(2) Sustained activation can lead to tissue injury;
(3) Different tissues display different tolerances to persistent IFN signaling.
Table 5. Common Experimental Readouts for the IFN Pathway
Research Level | Common Readouts | Major Significance |
Upstream induction layer | IFNB1, IRF3 phosphorylation, IFN secretion | Determines whether sensing and induction have occurred |
Receptor signaling layer | p-STAT1, p-STAT2, IRF9 | Determines whether JAK-STAT signaling has been activated |
Effector layer | MX1, ISG15, OAS1, IFIT1 | Determines whether ISG output has been established |
Functional layer | Viral replication, cell viability, MHC expression | Determines whether biological effects have been achieved |
6. Physiological and Pathological Significance
6.1 Antiviral Defense
Type I IFNs are more strongly associated with systemic early antiviral defense, whereas type III IFNs are more strongly associated with local barrier protection.
6.2 Antibacterial Immunity and Immune Regulation
IFN-γ is critically important for intracellular bacterial control, phagocyte activation, and antigen presentation.
6.3 Tumor Immunity
The IFN pathway can enhance tumor antigen presentation, promote immune-cell recruitment, and reshape the tumor microenvironment; however, persistent IFN signaling may also induce immunosuppressive-associated phenotypes.
6.4 Autoimmunity and Interferonopathies
Chronic abnormal activation of type I IFN signaling is closely associated with systemic lupus erythematosus, dermatomyositis, and multiple inherited inflammatory conditions.
7. Products Related to IFN Family Ligands and Receptor Proteins
Category | Catalog No. | Product Name | Grade and Purity | Suitable Research Direction / Use |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-Ω | Moligand™ | Used for comparing activity spectra among type I IFN family members and for studying non-classical type I IFN branches | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α1/13 | Moligand™ | Used for comparing receptor activation strength and ISG induction differences among IFN-α subtypes | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α10 | Moligand™ | Used for functional stratification of type I IFN subtypes and comparison of downstream transcriptional responses | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α14 | Moligand™ | Used for studying subtype-specific differences in antiviral activity and STAT1/STAT2 activation | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α16 | Moligand™ | Used for evaluating subtype-specific potency and comparing ISG profiles | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α17 | Moligand™ | Used for subtype screening and comparison of pathway sensitivity | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α2 | Moligand™ | Used for establishing classical type I IFN stimulation positive controls and constructing antiviral models | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α21 | Moligand™ | Used for activity comparison among type I IFN subtypes | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α4 | Moligand™ | Used for subtype functional studies and dose-response curve generation | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α5 | Moligand™ | Used for comparing IFN-α subtype effects and analyzing ISG response differences | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α6 | Moligand™ | Used for subtype screening and comparison of downstream pathway activation | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α7 | Moligand™ | Used for subtype comparison and receptor-dependent response studies | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-α8 | Moligand™ | Used for subtype functional validation and antiviral effect comparison | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-β | Moligand™ | Used for classical type I IFN pathway activation, IFNAR-dependence verification, and antiviral positive control establishment | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-β1a (recombinant human) | Moligand™ | Used for IFN-β pharmacology studies and comparison of type I IFN ligand variants | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-β1b (recombinant human) | Moligand™ | Used for comparing IFN-β variant activity and pathway output | |
Type II IFN ligand | IFN-γ | Moligand™ | Used for classical type II IFN stimulation models, GAF program activation, and macrophage response studies | |
Type II IFN ligand | IFN-γ1b (human recombinant) | Moligand™ | Used for pharmacological comparison of IFN-γ and validation of type II IFN function | |
Type I IFN ligand | IFN-κ | Moligand™ | Used for studying tissue-biased type I IFN branches and epithelial-associated IFN biology | |
Type III IFN ligand | IFN-λ;1 | Moligand™ | Used for type III IFN pathway activation and epithelial barrier antiviral studies | |
Type III IFN ligand | IFN-λ;2 | Moligand™ | Used for comparing activity among type III IFN members and studying receptor restriction | |
Type III IFN ligand | IFN-λ;3 | Moligand™ | Used for type III IFN functional comparison and analysis of local mucosal responses | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Horse IFNa Protein | ≥90%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for type I IFN stimulation in equine systems and cross-species comparison studies | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha 4/IFNA4 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,His Tag,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for human IFNA4 stimulation, subtype comparison, and ISG induction studies | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha 7/IFNA7 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,His Tag,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for validation of human IFNA7 activity and subtype comparison | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha B2/IFNA8 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),expressed in HEK293; See COA | Used for studying IFNA8-mediated type I IFN responses and comparing ligand potency | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha G/IFNA5 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,High Performance,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFNA5 stimulation experiments and type I IFN subtype screening | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha G/IFNA5 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,High Performance,≥90%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for repeat validation of IFNA5 function and batch comparison | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha H2/IFNA14 Protein | Carrier Free,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFNA14 stimulation studies and comparison of subtype-specific potency | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha H2/IFNA14 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for functional confirmation of IFNA14 and ligand-response validation | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha-1a Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,High Performance,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for establishing human type I IFN stimulation positive controls | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha-1a Protein | Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,His Tag,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for baseline type I IFN stimulation and batch validation | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha-2/IFNA2 Protein | Carrier Free,His Tag,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for classical IFN-α2 stimulation models, IFNAR-dependence studies, and ISG induction validation | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha-2B Protein | Animal Free, Carrier Free, Bioactive, ActiBioPure™, ≥98%(SDS-PAGE&HPLC) | Used for IFN-α2B-related functional studies and classical type I IFN pharmacology models | |
Type I IFN receptor | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha/beta R1 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,Azide Free,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for IFNAR1 binding, blocking-antibody validation, and receptor-ligand interaction analysis | |
Type I IFN receptor | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha/beta R2 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,Azide Free,His Tag,Fc tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for IFNAR2 binding studies, competition assays, and reconstruction of receptor systems | |
Type II IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-gamma GMP Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,High Performance,≥97%(SDS-PAGE&SEC-HPLC) | Used for high-standard IFN-γ stimulation, process validation, and pathway positive control establishment | |
Type II IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-gamma Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,High Performance,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFN-γ stimulation, STAT1-dominant pathway studies, and immune activation research | |
Type II IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-gamma Protein | Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,Azide Free,His Tag,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for type II IFN stimulation and GAS program activation validation | |
Type II IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-gamma Protein | Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,High Performance,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for optimizing IFN-γ response strength and stimulation conditions | |
Type II IFN receptor | Recombinant Human IFN-gamma R1 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,Azide Free,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for IFNGR1 binding analysis, blocking validation, and receptor studies | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-omega Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,Azide Free,High Performance,His Tag,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for studying IFN-ω-related type I IFN bypass signaling | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-α10/IFNA10 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,His Tag,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFNA10 subtype stimulation and subtype functional comparison | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFNa5 Protein | ≥90%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for baseline IFNa5 stimulation and validation in low-complexity systems | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFNb Protein | ≥90%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for IFN-β stimulation and type I IFN positive control establishment | |
Type II IFN receptor | Recombinant Human IFNgR1 Protein | ≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for IFNGR1 binding and receptor validation studies | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFNw Protein | ≥90%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for supplementary studies of IFN-ω function | |
Type III IFN receptor | Recombinant Human IL-28 R alpha/IFN-lambda R1 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,His Tag,Fc tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for type III IFN receptor binding, blocking validation, and receptor system construction | |
Type III IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IL-28A/IFN-lambda 2 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,Azide Free,High Performance,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for IFN-λ2 stimulation and epithelial barrier model studies | |
Type III IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IL-28B/IFN-lambda 3 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Azide Free,His Tag,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for studies of IFN-λ3 local antiviral activity and mucosal responses | |
Type III IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IL-29/IFN-lambda 1 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,High Performance,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for IFN-λ1 stimulation, epithelial-restricted response studies, and type III IFN comparison | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha 6/IFNA6 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFNA6 subtype stimulation studies | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Human IFN-alpha I/IFN17 Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,His Tag,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for functional comparison of IFN17 subtype activity | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Mouse IFN-beta Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,Azide Free,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for mouse type I IFN stimulation and bridging between in vitro and in vivo models | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Mouse IFN-beta Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,His Tag,Fc tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for mouse IFN-β receptor binding and functional validation | |
Type II IFN ligand | Recombinant Mouse IFN-gamma Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Bioactive,ActiBioPure™,High Performance,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for mouse IFN-γ stimulation and macrophage activation studies | |
Type II IFN ligand | Recombinant Mouse IFN-gamma Protein | Animal Free,Carrier Free,Azide Free,His Tag,PBS Only,≥98%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for classical mouse type II IFN stimulation models | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Mouse IFNa Protein | ≥90%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for mouse type I IFN stimulation and overall subtype validation | |
Type II IFN ligand | Recombinant Rat IFN-gamma Protein | Carrier Free, Bioactive, ActiBioPure™, High Performance, ≥95%(SDS-PAGE), See COA | Used for rat IFN-γ stimulation and species-matched model studies | |
Type I IFN ligand | Recombinant Rat IFNa Protein | ≥90%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for rat type I IFN stimulation studies |
8. Neutralizing/Blocking Antibodies and Pharmacological Intervention Tools
Category | Catalog No. | Product Name | Grade and Purity | Suitable Research Direction / Use |
IFNγ neutralizing antibody | AMG-811 (anti-IFNg) | Carrier Free, Recombinant, ExactAb™, Low Endotoxin, Azide Free, Validated, Animal Free, ≥95%(SDS-PAGE&SEC-HPLC), See COA | Used for determining IFN-γ dependence, type II IFN blockade, and establishment of neutralization controls | |
IFNAR1 blocking antibody | Anifrolumab (anti-IFNAR1) | Carrier Free, Recombinant, ExactAb™, Low Endotoxin, Azide Free, Validated, Animal Free, ≥95%(SDS-PAGE&SEC-HPLC), See COA | Used for type I IFN receptor blockade, determination of IFNAR dependence, and pathway dissection | |
IFNγ antibody | Anti-Mouse IFN gamma Antibody | ≥95% | Used for mouse IFN-γ neutralization or validation of secreted IFN-γ detection | |
IFNγ neutralizing antibody | Emapalumab (anti-IFNγ) | Carrier Free, Recombinant, ExactAb™, Low Endotoxin, Azide Free, Validated, Animal Free, ≥95%(SDS-PAGE&SEC-HPLC), See COA | Used for IFN-γ neutralization, dissection of co-stimulation models, and functional rescue experiments | |
IFNAR1 blocking antibody | Faralimomab (anti-IFNAR-1) | Carrier Free, Recombinant, ExactAb™, Low Endotoxin, Azide Free, Validated, Animal Free, ≥95%(SDS-PAGE&SEC-HPLC), See COA | Used for IFNAR blockade and validation of ligand-receptor dependence | |
IFNγ neutralizing antibody | Fontolizumab (anti-IFNG) | Carrier Free, Recombinant, ExactAb™, Low Endotoxin, Azide Free, Validated, Animal Free, ≥95%(SDS-PAGE&SEC-HPLC), See COA | Used for IFN-γ pathway blockade and comparison of neutralization strategies | |
IFNAR small-molecule inhibitor | IFN alpha-IFNAR-IN-1 | Used for rapid pharmacological blockade of the type I IFN-IFNAR axis | ||
IFNAR small-molecule inhibitor | IFN alpha-IFNAR-IN-1 hydrochloride | Moligand™, ≥98% | Used for IFNAR inhibition and dose-dependent studies | |
IFNAR small-molecule inhibitor | IFN alpha-IFNAR-IN-1 hydrochloride | 10mM in DMSO | Used for pharmacological IFNAR blockade in cell-based experiments | |
IFN receptor antibody | IFN gamma Receptor beta/AF-1 Antibody | ExactAb™, Validated, 1.0 mg/mL | Used for detecting IFNγ receptor expression and comparing receptor abundance | |
IFN receptor recognition peptide | IFN-α Receptor Recognition Peptide 1 | Used for receptor recognition, binding competition, and ligand-interface studies | ||
IFNα antibody | IFN-α2 Mouse mAb | Carrier Free, ExactAb™, Validated, See COA | Used for IFN-α2 detection and validation of ligand neutralization | |
IFNγ antagonist | IFN-γ Antagonist 1 | ≥99% | Used for type II IFN antagonism and functional blockade studies | |
IFNγ antagonist | IFN-γ Antagonist 1 acetate | ≥99% | Used for pharmacological IFN-γ blockade and optimization of antagonism conditions | |
IFNγ antibody | IFN-γ Armenian Hamster mAb | Carrier Free,ExactAb™,Low Endotoxin,Azide Free,Validated,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE&SEC-HPLC),See COA | Used for IFN-γ detection, neutralization, and species-matched experiments | |
IFNγ antibody | IFN-γ Mouse mAb | Carrier Free,ExactAb™,Azide Free,Validated,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFN-γ protein detection and validation of post-stimulation supernatants | |
IFNγ antibody | IFN-γ Mouse mAb | Carrier Free,Azide Free,Validated,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFN-γ protein detection | |
IFNγ flow antibody | IFN-γ Mouse mAb (FITC) | ExactAb™, Validated, 5 μL/test | Used for intracellular IFN-γ flow cytometry and analysis of secreting cell populations | |
IFNGR1 antibody | IFNGR1/CD119 Armenian hamster mAb | Carrier Free,Azide Free,Validated,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFNGR1 expression identification and receptor-occupancy validation | |
IFNGR1 antibody | IFNGR1/CD119 Mouse mAb | Carrier Free,Low Endotoxin,Azide Free,Validated,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE&HPLC),See COA | Used for IFNGR1 detection and comparison of receptor abundance | |
IFNGR1 antibody | IFNGR1/CD119 Rat mAb | Carrier Free,ExactAb™,Azide Free,Validated,PBS Only,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFNGR1 detection and species-matched studies | |
IFNα small-molecule inhibitor | IFNα-IN-1 | Used for pharmacological inhibition of type I IFN signaling | ||
IFNγ antibody | Interferon gamma/IFNγ Mouse mAb | Carrier Free,ExactAb™,Validated,Azide Free,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFN-γ detection and neutralization validation | |
IFNα antibody | Recombinant IFN-alpha Antibody | Carrier Free,Recombinant,ExactAb™,Azide Free,Validated,See COA | Used for IFN-α detection and confirmation of secretion levels | |
IFNα antibody | Recombinant IFN-alpha Antibody | Carrier Free,Recombinant,ExactAb™,Azide Free,Validated,See COA | Used for IFN-α detection and methodological repeat validation | |
IFNGR1 antibody | Recombinant IFNGR1 Antibody | KD Validation | Used for IFNGR1 protein detection and antibody validation | |
IFNγ antibody | Recombinant IFNγ Antibody | Carrier Free,Recombinant,ExactAb™,Low Endotoxin,Azide Free,Validated,PBS Only,≥99%(SEC-HPLC),See COA | Used for high-purity IFN-γ detection and neutralization studies | |
IFNγ antibody | Recombinant IFNγ Antibody | Carrier Free,Recombinant,ExactAb™,Azide Free,Validated,PBS Only,≥99%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFN-γ detection and repeatability validation | |
IFNγ antibody | Recombinant Interferon gamma/IFNγ Antibody | Carrier Free,ExactAb™,Validated,Azide Free,Recombinant,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFN-γ detection | |
IFNγ antibody | Recombinant Interferon gamma/IFNγ Antibody | Carrier Free,ExactAb™,Azide Free,Validated,Recombinant,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for IFN-γ detection and antibody replacement validation | |
IFNA1 neutralizing antibody | Rontalizumab (anti-IFNA1) | Carrier Free, Recombinant, ExactAb™, Low Endotoxin, Azide Free, Validated, Animal Free, ≥95%(SDS-PAGE&SEC-HPLC), See COA | Used for IFNA1-specific neutralization and validation of autocrine type I IFN loops | |
IFNA1 neutralizing antibody | Sifalimumab (anti-IFNa1) | Carrier Free, Recombinant, ExactAb™, Low Endotoxin, Azide Free, Validated, Animal Free, ≥95%(SDS-PAGE&SEC-HPLC), See COA | Used for IFNA1 blockade and comparison of type I IFN inhibition | |
Composite inflammatory inhibitor | TNF/IFN-γ-IN-1 | ≥99% | Used for TNF/IFN-γ co-stimulation injury models and dissection of dual-pathway synergy |
9. Signal Transduction and Detection Reagents
Category | Catalog No. | Product Name | Grade and Purity | Suitable Research Direction / Use |
STAT1 recombinant protein | Recombinant Human STAT1 Protein | Carrier Free,His Tag,≥95%(SDS-PAGE),See COA | Used for STAT1 binding studies, in vitro reactions, and downstream transduction mechanism research | |
STAT1 recombinant protein | Recombinant Human STAT1 Protein | Carrier Free, Bioactive, ActiBioPure™, ≥90%(SDS-PAGE), See COA | Used for STAT1 functional reconstitution and activity validation | |
STAT1 recombinant protein | Recombinant Mouse STAT1 Protein | ≥90%(SDS-PAGE) | Used for in vitro functional studies of mouse STAT1 | |
STAT1 antibody | Recombinant Phospho-STAT1 (S727) Antibody | KD Validation | Used for readout of STAT1 phosphorylation sites and monitoring of the signaling layer | |
STAT1 antibody | Recombinant STAT1 Antibody | KD Validation | Used for detection of total STAT1 expression | |
STAT1 antibody | Recombinant STAT1 Antibody | Recombinant, ExactAb™, KD Validation, Validated, See COA | Used for STAT1 expression analysis and antibody validation | |
STAT1 antibody | Recombinant STAT1 Antibody | KD Validation | Used for STAT1 detection | |
STAT1 antibody | STAT1 Mouse mAb | KD Validation | Used for STAT1 expression detection and sample comparison | |
STAT1 pathway inhibitor | STAT1/3-IN-1 | Used for pharmacological inhibition of the STAT1 axis and dissection of shared STAT1/3 nodes | ||
IFN detection kit | Human Interferon Alpha (IFN-α) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for quantitative measurement of human type I IFN secretion, time-course analysis, and comparison of stimulation strength | |
IFN detection kit | Human Interferon Beta (IFN-β) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for IFN-β secretion readout and quantification of the induction layer | |
IFN detection kit | Human Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for quantitative detection of human IFN-γ secretion and quality control of type II IFN models | |
IFN detection kit | Human Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for quantitative detection of human IFN-γ secretion and repeat validation | |
IFN detection kit | Human Interferon Alpha-1Beta(IFNα-1b) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for specific detection of IFN-α1b secretion | |
IFN detection kit | Rabbit Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for rabbit type II IFN detection | |
IFN detection kit | Rat Interferon Alpha (IFN-α) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for quantitative detection of rat type I IFN secretion | |
IFN detection kit | Rat Interferon Beta (IFN-β) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for rat IFN-β quantification and induction-layer readout | |
IFN detection kit | Rat Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for quantitative detection of rat IFN-γ | |
IFN detection kit | Mouse Interferon Alpha (IFN-α) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for mouse type I IFN secretion detection | |
IFN detection kit | Mouse Interferon Beta (IFN-β) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for mouse IFN-β readout and correspondence between in vivo and in vitro models | |
IFN detection kit | Mouse Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for quantitative detection of mouse type II IFN secretion | |
IFN detection kit | Mouse Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for repeat validation of mouse IFN-γ detection | |
IFN detection kit | Mouse Interferon (IFN) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for monitoring total IFN levels in mouse systems and model quality control | |
IFN detection kit | Mouse Interferon Beta 1 (IFN-β1) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for specific detection of mouse IFN-β1 | |
IFN detection kit | Monkey Interferon Alpha (IFN-α) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for nonhuman primate type I IFN detection | |
IFN detection kit | Monkey Interferon Beta (IFN-β) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for nonhuman primate IFN-β detection | |
IFN detection kit | Monkey Interferon Gamma (IFN-γ) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for nonhuman primate IFN-γ detection | |
STAT1 detection kit | Human Signal Transducer And Activator Of Transcription 1 (STAT1) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for total STAT1 readout and quantification of the signaling layer | |
STAT1 detection kit | Human Solubility Signal Transducer and Activator Of Transcription 1 (p-STAT1) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for quantitative measurement of STAT1 phosphorylation after receptor activation and validation of pharmacological inhibition | |
STAT1 detection kit | Mouse Signal Transducer And Activator Of Transcription 1 (STAT1) ELISA Kit | BioReagent | Used for STAT1 pathway readout in mouse systems and model comparison |
The interferon pathway is not a single receptor-mediated signal, but a multilayered immune network composed of upstream pathogen sensing, IFN induction, JAK-STAT signal transduction, ISG effector output, and negative-feedback restraint.
For more related articles, please see below:
[5] Wnt Signaling
References
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[2] Torpey N, Maher SE, Bothwell AL, et al. (2004) Interferon alpha but not interleukin 12 activates STAT4 signaling in human vascular endothelial cells. J Biol Chem 279(25): 26789-26796. Epub 2004 Apr 15.
[3] Patel D, Nan Y, Shen M, et al. (2010) Porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus inhibits type I interferon signaling by blocking STAT1/STAT2 nuclear translocation. J Virol 84(21): 11045-11055. Epub 2010 Aug 25.
[4] Friedman RM. (2008) Clinical uses of interferons. Br J Clin Pharmacol 65(2): 158-162. Epub 2007 Dec 7.
[5] Ng SL, Friedman BA, Schmid S, et al. (2011) IKB kinase ε (IKKε) regulates the balance between type I and type II interferon responses. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 108(52): 21170-21175. Epub 2011 Dec 14.
[6] Pietras EM, Saha SK, Cheng G. (2006) The interferon response to bacterial and viral infections. J Endotoxin Res 12(4): 246-250.
[7] Bonjardim CA, Ferreira PC, Kroon EG. (2009) Interferons: signaling, antiviral and viral evasion. Immunol Lett 122(1): 1-11. Epub 2008 Dec 6. Review.