1. Observe the general morphologic structure of the human bone and the composition of the human skeleton and its tectonic features, and compare them with those of quadrupedal mammals.
2. Observe the general morphology and structure of typical vertebrae and the characteristics of each vertebra, and understand the composition and structural characteristics of the spine and thorax.
3. Observe the composition and structural features of the cranium and compare them with the neonatal cranium.
4. Observe the composition and structural characteristics of the bones of the upper and lower limbs, understand the composition of the pelvis and the arch of the foot, and compare the gender differences in the pelvis of men and women.
5. Observe the composition of the major joints and understand the structural characteristics of the joints that are compatible with motor functions.
Operation method
Skeletal morphology observation experiment Move [Materials and appliances] For more product details, please visit Aladdin Scientific website.
Human whole body skeleton specimen and each part of the bone specimen, decalcified bone and ashing bone specimen, young children femur longitudinal section immersion specimen, newborn cranial specimen, lumbar spine longitudinal section immersion specimen, shoulder joint anatomical immersion specimen, elbow joint anatomical immersion specimen, hip joint anatomical immersion specimen, knee joint anatomical immersion specimen, pelvis and arch anatomical immersion specimen, rabbit or dog's bone skeleton specimen.
【Operation
Skeletal specimens are harmless to the human body after clean and sterilized: the specimens should be taken care of during the experiment, and should be held gently and put down, do not hit hard to avoid damaging the specimens. When taking cranial specimens, use the index finger to hook the zygomatic arch or occipital foramen magnum, do not use the thumb and index finger to reach into the orbital and nasal cavity to take cranial specimens, so as to avoid damage to the nasal cavity and orbital wall. Do not mark, scribble or write on the specimen.
I. Morphology, structure and composition of bone
1. Morphology of bone From the specimen of human skeleton, distinguish the morphology and distribution of long bones, short bones, flat bones and irregular bones. Some irregular bones have air-containing cavities inside, called air-containing bones. Where are the air-containing bones mainly located and what is their significance?
2. Bone structure Observe a longitudinally dissected immersion specimen of the femur of a young child and a longitudinally sawn specimen of the femur of an adult. The ends of a long bone are called epiphyses and the middle part is called the diaphysis. The outer surface of the bone is covered with a layer of dense connective tissue of the periosteum, the inner surface of the periosteum is bone, the outer layer of bone is dense, thick, is dense, the inner layer of bone is loose, by many bone trabeculae in a certain direction intertwined into the cancellous bone. There are 1~2 small holes on the surface of the backbone, which are called trophoblast holes. The cavity in the middle of the backbone is called the medullary cavity. The medullary cavity and all the spaces in the cancellous bone are filled with bone marrow in the living state. Observing the femur of a young child, a thin layer of cartilage called epiphyseal cartilage is seen between the epiphysis and the diaphysis. In the bone of an adult, the epiphyseal cartilage is seen to be ossified, leaving only a line of bone at the original epiphyseal cartilage, called the epiphyseal line. Taking the craniocaudal bone specimen and observing it, it can be seen that the bone matrix is divided into inner plate and outer plate. The loose bone between the inner and outer plates is called the plate barrier.
3. Bone composition and characteristics Observe the decalcified bone specimen treated with dilute hydrochloric acid, and see that the bone is very soft and elastic although it keeps its shape intact. Observe after burning to remove the organic matter of ashed bone specimens, visible bone in the shape of the original shape is still maintained, but very brittle, easy to break.
Spine
(I) Composition of the spinal column
Observe the shape and composition of the spinal column on a skeleton specimen of the whole body. The spinal column consists of the cervical vertebrae (7), thoracic vertebrae (l2), lumbar vertebrae (5), sacrum (l) and coccyx (1).
(ii) General shape of vertebrae
Observe a piece of thoracic vertebrae to understand the general morphology of vertebrae. Identify the vertebral body, arch and foramen. From the vertebral arch emanates a spinous process (one), a transverse process (one pair), a superior articular process (one pair), and a inferior articular process (one pair), with an articular surface on both the superior and inferior articular processes. There is a superior and inferior notch in the pedicle. How is the intervertebral foramen formed?
(iii) Main features of each vertebrae
Take specimens of cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral and coccygeal vertebrae for observation and compare their similarities and differences.
1. Cervical vertebrae: the vertebral body is small, the vertebral foramen is large, the transverse process has a transverse foramen, the spinous processes of 2-6 cervical vertebrae are short, and the end is bifurcated, and the atlas vertebrae consists of the anterior arch, posterior arch, and the two lateral blocks, with no vertebral body, spinous process, and articular eminence. The vertebral bodies of the cardinal vertebrae project upward into the spinous processes. The spinous processes of the rhomboid vertebrae are exceptionally long, not bifurcated at the end, and are easily palpable in vivo.
Thoracic vertebrae The vertebral bodies have upper and lower costal recesses on both sides, transverse costal recesses at the end of the transverse processes, and long, obliquely posteriorly directed spinous processes.
3. Lumbar vertebrae The vertebral body is large, the foramen is triangular, the spinous processes are wide and short, plate-like, and extend to the posterior force side.
4. Sacrum The sacrum is formed by the healing of five sacral vertebrae, triangular in shape, with the base facing upward and the tip facing downward. The pelvic surface is four sunken, and four pairs of presacral foramina are visible. The dorsal surface is convex, and there is a mid-sacral ridge in the median line, and there are 4 pairs of post-sacral foramina on the lateral side of the ridge. Both the presacral and posterior foramina lead to the sacral canal, the lower end of the sacral canal is called the sacral cleft, and there is an auricular surface on the upper part of the lateral part of the sacrum.
The coccyx is formed by the fusion of 3 to 4 caudal vertebrae.
(D) Connection of vertebrae
A longitudinal section of a lumbar vertebra was taken for observation. The upper and lower articular processes of two neighboring vertebrae form the intervertebral joint. Between the two adjacent vertebrae there is an intervertebral disc, the disc is surrounded by several layers of fibrous ring, composed of fibrocartilage, internal gelatinous material called nucleus pulposus. What is the significance of the intervertebral disc to the connection and movement of the spine? There are anterior and posterior longitudinal and posterior longitudinal ligaments in the front and back of the vertebrae, and a supraspinous ligament at the end of the spinous process.
(v) Physiological curvature of the spine
Observe the side of the human spine and compare it against a rabbit or dog spinal specimen. Where are the physiologic curves of the human spine located? What is the significance?
III. Thorax
1. Composition of the thorax Observe the composition of the thorax on the skeleton specimen of the whole body. Thorax consists of 12 thoracic vertebrae, 12 pairs of ribs and 1 sternum, the upper seven pairs of ribs are connected to the sternum by costal cartilage, which is the true ribs; the lower five pairs of ribs are not directly connected to the sternum, which is the false ribs; the eleventh and twelfth pairs of ribs are free from the anterior end, which is the floating ribs. Observe the shape of the human thorax and compare it with that of the rabbit or dog to understand the characteristics of the human thorax.
2. Ribs Take a piece of typical rib and observe it, distinguish the rib body, rib nodes, rib neck and rib head.
3. Sternum Take a specimen of sternum for observation. The sternum can be divided into three parts: the sternal handle, the sternal body and the raphe (the upper edge of the sternal handle is the jugular vein notch. The upper edge of the sternal handle is the jugular vein notch. The notch is flanked by the lock notch and then the first rib notch. The slightly convex angle forward at the junction of the sternal styloid and the body is the sternal angle. The body of the sternum is flanked by multiple pairs of notches, which are the costal cartilage junctions. The sternal angle is palpated in vivo.
IV. Cranium
(A) the composition of the skull
Using cranial specimens and cranial isolation specimens, observe the composition of the cranium and the morphology of the various cranial bones. The cranium can be divided into two parts: the cerebral cranium and the facial cranium. The cranium consists of 8 bones, including the occipital bone (1), frontal bone (1), parietal bone (2), temporal bone (2), pterygoid bone (1), and sieve bone (1). The cranium consists of 15 bones, including the maxilla (2), zygomatic bone (2), nasal bone (2), lacrimal bone (2), palatine bone (2), inferior turbinate (2), plica (1), mandible (l), and hyoid bone (1). The frontal bone, sieve bone, pterygoid bone, and maxilla contain air-containing cavities, all of which are connected to the nasal cavity and are called paranasal sinuses.
(ii) Overall view of the cranium
Except for the mandible and hyoid bone, the cranium is united by membranes, sutures and cartilage.
(1) Parietal view of the cranium Identify the coronal, sagittal and herringbone sutures.
2. Internal view of the base of the skull Observe the specimen of the skull with a sawn-off skull cap. It can be seen that the inner surface of the skull base forms three fossae, anterior, middle and posterior, from front to back. The anterior fossa of the skull is very high, accommodating the frontal lobes of the cerebral hemispheres, and there is a cockle and a sieve plate in the middle. The sieve plate has many sieve holes for the passage of the olfactory nerve root filaments. The middle cranial fossa is lower than the anterior cranial fossa and houses the temporal lobes. In the center of the middle cranial fossa there is the pterygoid saddle, in the upper center of the saddle there is the pituitary fossa, and in the anterolateral part of the fossa there is the optic nerve canal, which leads to the orbital cavity. The lateral portion of the middle cranial fossa contains this fissure and foramen. The supraorbital fissure is the fissure between the cranial cavity and the orbit with neurovascular passage. On both sides of the pterional saddle, there are round, oval, and sphenoidal foramina in order from anteriorly inward to posteriorly outward. The posterior part of the pterygoid saddle has rupture foramen on both sides, and the wall of the rupture foramen has a carotid artery opening to the carotid artery. The postcranial fossa is the deepest and contains the cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata. In the center of the fossa is the foramen magnum occipitalis, with a slope anteriorly and superiorly, an inner opening of the hypoglossal canal on the anterolateral margin of the foramen, and an intraoccipital bulge posterior to the foramen. This continues laterally to the transverse sinus sulcus, then curves into the sigmoid sinus sulcus, and finally ends in the jugular foramen. Anterior to the jugular foramen, there is an internal superior auricular portal, leading to the internal auditory canal.
3. Outside view of the skull base There is the foramen magnum of the occipital bone in the center of the posterior part of the skull base, and there is an external occipital bulge behind the foramen magnum, and there is an occipital condyle in front of the foramen magnum on the lateral side. There is an external opening of the hypoglossal canal in front of the occipital condyle and a jugular vein foramen on the lateral side. Anterior to the foramen magnum there is the external opening of the carotid canal, and posterolaterally there is the foramen magnum. Lateral to the mastoid process, there is a mastoid foramen between the roots of the stem and mastoid process. There is a mandibular fossa anterior to the mastoid process. There is a hard palate in the center of the anterior part of the skull base, and left and right postnasal foramina above the posterior part of the hard palate.
4. Anterior view of the cranium The two orbits and bony nasal cavity are visible. The orbits are in the shape of a four-sided cone, with the tip pointing inward posteriorly, and there is an optic nerve canal passing through the cranial cavity. There is a lacrimal sac fossa at the anterior margin of the medial wall of the orbit, which is continued down the nasolacrimal duct and leads to the nasal cavity; the posterior part of the lateral wall of the orbit has a supraorbital fissure that leads to the cranial cavity, and an infraorbital fissure that leads to the infratemporal fossa. The bony nasal cavity has a pyriform aperture anteriorly and a postnasal aperture posteriorly, with a bony septum in the center dividing the nose into two halves, left and right; the lateral wall is lined with the upper, middle, and lower turbinates.
5. Lateral view of the cranium The middle part of the lateral side of the cranium has the external ear gate, the zygomatic arch in front of the external ear gate, and the mastoid process in the back. Below the zygomatic arch is the temporal fossa and below it is the infratemporal fossa. The frontal, parietal, temporal and pterygoid bones meet at the point called the wing point.
(iii) Neonatal Cranium
A specimen of neonatal cranium is taken for observation and compared with adult cranium to understand the characteristics of neonatal cranium. What are the characteristics of the neonatal cranium in proportion to the facial cranium? Identify the location of anterior fontanel, posterior fontanel, anterolateral fontanel and posterolateral fontanel.
V. Upper limb bones and their connections
(i) Composition of upper limb bones
Observe the whole body skeleton specimen and isolate the upper limb bone specimen. Upper limb bones are composed of upper limb band bones and free upper limb bones
1. Upper limb bones include the clavicle and scapula. Observe their position and the associated joints with other bones
(1) Clavicle The whole bone is in the shape of "~", distinguishing the thick sternal end and the flat acromion end. The clavicle is smooth above and rough below, with a medial convexity forward and a lateral convexity backward. Identify the left and right sides of the clavicle.
(2) Scapular pedicle Triangular flat bone, distinguishing two surfaces (anterior and posterior), three margins (superior, lateral, and medial margins), and three corners (medial, lateral, and inferior corners). The lateral corner has a shallow pear-shaped fossa called the articular glenoid. The lateral end of the superior margin has a protuberance. On the dorsal surface there is the scapular ridge, the free end of which is the acromion. The shallow fossae above and below the scapular ridge are called the supraspinatus and infraspinatus fossae, respectively
2. Bones of the free upper extremity including the humerus, ulna, radius and hand bones.
(l) The humerus is divided into a single body and its upper and lower ends. The upper end has a hemispherical humeral head, a shallow groove around the head for the anatomical neck, a small tuberosity anteriorly, a large tuberosity laterally, and a shallow groove between the two tuberosities for the intertrochanteric sulcus. There is a surgical neck at the junction of the upper end with the body. The central part of the humerus has a "V"-shaped deltoid rudiment on the lateral side, below which is the radial nerve sulcus. The lower end of the humerus is flattened, and the projections expanding laterally are the medial and lateral epicondyles, which are palpable at one's elbow. The medial portion of the articular surface of the lower end is larger and articulates with the ulna as the trochanter of the humerus; the lateral portion is smaller and slightly spherical as the tuberosity of the humerus. The glide has a coronoid fossa anteriorly superiorly and a hawksbill fossa posteriorly superiorly.
(2) Radius The upper end of the radius is the head of the radius, with an articular concavity above the head and an annular shutting surface around the head. Below the head is a slightly thin neck called the radial neck, and there is a radial trochlea on the inner lower part of the neck. There is a radial tuberosity on the lateral side of the upper end, an ulnar notch on the medial side, and a carpal articular surface below.
(3) Ulna The upper end is thick, with the coronoid process anteriorly and inferiorly, the hawksbill posteriorly and superiorly, with the pulley notch between them, the ulnar tuberosity below the coronoid process, and the radial notch on the lateral side of the coronoid process. The lower end is the head of the ulna with a circumferential articular surface around the head and a posterior medial projection called the ulnar tuberosity.
(4) The bones of the hand are divided into carpal bones, metacarpal bones and phalanges. Carpal bones total 8 pieces, arranged in two columns: proximal column from the radial side to the ulnar side of the hand for the navicular bone, lunate, triangular bone and pea bone; distal column from the radial side to the ulnar side of the most large angular bone, a small polygonal bone, cephalic bone and hook bone. Five metacarpals. Fourteen phalanges, the thumb two-jointed, the remaining four fingers three-jointed. Note the shape of the articular surface of the first metacarpal with the greater multicoracoid; to which type of joint does it belong?
(ii) The main joints of the bones of the upper limb
Take anatomical specimens of the shoulder and elbow joints for observation.
1. The shoulder joint is a typical ball and socket joint composed of the glenoid of the scapula and the humeral head. The glenoid is slightly deepened by the presence of a cartilaginous labrum at the margin of the glenoid. The joint capsule is lax and has few ligaments. What are the structural features associated with flexibility of movement in the shoulder joint?
2. The elbow joint is a compound joint consisting of three sets of joints, the ulnar, radial, and proximal radial-ulnar, enclosed in a joint capsule. The joint capsule is loose and reinforced by ligaments on both sides.
Sixth, the lower limb bone and its connection
(A) the composition of the lower limb bones
Observe the whole body skeleton specimen and isolate the lower limb bone specimen. Lower limb bones are composed of lower limb band bones and free lower limb bones.
1. lower limb bone lower limb bone, that is, the hip bone left and right each one, the upper part of the flat and broad, the middle part of the narrow and thick, hip bone outside the middle part of a deep fossa, called the acetabulum, the lower part of the closed hole. Hip bone in young children can be divided into ilium, pubic bone, sciatica three parts, they borrow cartilage connected together, after adulthood, ossification and healing.
The ilium constitutes the upper lateral part of the hip bone and is divided into the iliac body and the wing. The upper edge of the wing is called the iliac crest, and the anterior and posterior ends of the crest have prominent anterior superior iliac spines and posterior superior iliac spines. Below the two spines, there are an anterior inferior iliac spine and a posterior inferior iliac spine. Below the posterior inferior iliac spine is the greater sciatic notch. The shallow fossa on the inner surface of the iliac wing is called the iliac fossa, and below the iliac wing posteriorly there is a rough auricular surface. The sciatic bone forms the lower part of the hip bone and is divided into the body of the sciatic bone and the branch of the sciatic bone. Posterior to the union of the body and branch of the sciatic, there is the sciatic tuberosity. The pubic bone constitutes the anterior and inferior part of the hip bone, which can be divided into the body of the pubis and the superior and inferior branches of the pubis. On the medial surface of the junction of the superior and inferior branches of the pubis, there is the pubic symphysis.
The free lower extremity bones include the femur, patella, tibia, fibula and foot bones.
(l) the femur is divided into one body and the upper and lower ends. The upper end is spherical, for the femoral head, and the acetabulum to form the hip joint. The lower part of the femoral head is narrowed down and is the neck of the femur. There are two protrusions at the junction of the neck and the body, called the greater and lesser trochanter The femoral body is cylindrical. The lower end of the femur expands to the left and right to form the medial and lateral condyles, and the medial and lateral condyles face the medial and lateral epicondyles, respectively. Between the posterior portion of the medial and lateral condyles is the intercondylar fossa, and both posteriorly inferior and anteriorly are articular surfaces, under which the medial and lateral tibial condyles are attached.
(2) Patella is the largest seed bone in the human body, which occurs in the quadriceps tendon and participates in the formation of the knee joint.
(3) Tibia The tibia is located on the inner side of the lower leg and is divided into two ends. The upper end is enlarged, forming the medial and lateral condyles to both sides, the bulge in front of the upper end is called the tibial tuberosity, and there is a peroneal articular surface below the posterior part of the lateral condyles. The body of the tibia is trigonous and the anterior tibial crest can be palpated subcutaneously. The medial downward projection of the lower end is called the medial malleolus, with a fibular notch on the lateral side, which meets the fibula, and an articular surface below the lower end that articulates with the tarsus.
(4) Fibula The fibula is slender, located on the lateral side of the tibia, and divided into two ends. The upper end is thicker and is the head of the fibula, on which there is an articular surface of the head of the fibula associated with the tibia. The body is three-pronged and the lower end is slightly pointed, called the external ankle.
(5) Foot bones are divided into tarsus, metatarsus and phalanges. The tarsal bones are divided into 7 pieces, the talus, the heel bone, the dice bone, the navicular bone and the medial, middle and lateral cuneiform bones. Metatarsal bones 5 pieces, metatarsal bone is divided into head, body, bottom three parts, the bottom of the dice bone, cuneiform bone related joints, metatarsal head and phalanges related joints. There are 14 phalanges, each with 3 sections except the bunion, which has 2 sections.
(ii) The main connections of the bones of the lower limb
Anatomical specimens of the hip joint, knee joint, pelvis and arch of the foot were taken for observation.
1. The hip joint consists of the articulating surfaces of the acetabulum and the femoral head. The acetabulum is deepened by the attachment of the acetabular labrum to the rim of the acetabulum. The articular surface of the femoral head is almost entirely covered by articular cartilage. Most of the femoral head enters the acetabulum to form the pestle and mortar joint. The hip joint capsule is reinforced by ligaments in and around the acetabulum, such as the femoral head ligament, the iliofemoral ligament, and the rotator cuff. What are the structural features of the hip joint that are compatible with function?
The knee is the largest and most complex joint in the body, consisting of the lower end of the femur, the upper end of the tibia and the patella. The knee joint is a flexor-patellar joint, and the anterior wall of the joint capsule is lined with the quadriceps tendon, patella and patellar ligament. Inside the joint cavity are the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments, as well as a pair of fibrocartilage plates called the medial and lateral menisci. There are tibial collateral ligaments and fibular collateral ligaments on each side of the joint capsule.
The pelvis is made up of the left and right hip bones and the sacrum, the coccyx through the joints, ligaments and cartilage connection. The angle between the left and right pubic bone is called the pubic bone angle. Because the female pelvis is the birth canal of the fetus gestation and delivery, male and female pelvis have obvious gender differences, can be compared with male and female pelvis specimens for comparison,
The arch of the foot is a convex upward arch formed by the joints, ligaments, and tendons of the tarsal and metatarsal bones, and can be divided into the lateral longitudinal arch, the medial longitudinal arch, and the transverse arch. The lateral longitudinal arch is lower and the medial longitudinal arch is higher. Observe the foot bones against those of a rabbit or a dog to understand the characteristics and significance of the human foot arch.