The Methodological Value of DSC: Building NHS-Type Activated Intermediates and Deciding When to Use Them

1. The Key Value of DSC: Providing an NHS-Type Activation Entry Point That Can Be Managed Stepwise

 

The core value of DSC [N,N′-disuccinimidyl carbonate] lies in its ability to first convert different types of substrates into N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS)-type activated intermediates, which can then be used for subsequent bond-forming steps. Its importance does not lie merely in the fact that it “can participate in coupling” or “can be used for activation,” but rather in the fact that it can organize otherwise scattered bond-forming tasks under one unified pre-activation logic. In 1979, DSC was introduced as a reagent for the synthesis of active esters and was applied to the preparation of active esters and peptides. Thereafter, this strategy was further extended to studies involving hydroxyl activation, protein conjugation, and oligonucleotide functionalization.

 

To understand DSC, the key question is whether the experiment requires an identifiable NHS-type activation entry point that can be handled in a stepwise manner. When the research goal is to first convert a hydroxyl group into an active carbonate, convert a carboxyl group into an NHS active ester, or bring ligand precursors bearing hydroxyl or amino groups into a unified coupling pathway, the value of DSC becomes very clear. By contrast, if the experimental goal is simply to complete a routine bond-forming step and there is no need to manage the activated intermediate separately, DSC is often not the route that deserves first priority.

 

2. Three Representative Task Scenarios for DSC

 

The representative applications of DSC [N,N′-disuccinimidyl carbonate, DSC] are concentrated in three pre-activation pathways: hydroxyl substrates are activated to form N-hydroxysuccinimide-type active carbonates [N-hydroxysuccinimide, NHS; hereafter referred to as NHS active carbonates], carboxyl substrates are activated to form NHS active esters, and ligand precursors bearing hydroxyl or amino groups are activated to generate NHS-type activated linkers that can undergo further coupling. These three routes differ in their starting substrates and downstream tasks, but all revolve around the same step: first forming an NHS-type activated intermediate that can be used further, and then proceeding to the subsequent connection step. The 1979 study had already introduced DSC as a reagent for active ester synthesis; later studies further extended this logic to tasks such as alkoxycarbonylation of amines, lysine-site conjugation on proteins, and 5′-site functionalization of oligonucleotides.

 

2.1 Three Representative Application Pathways of DSC and Their Typical Tasks

 

Starting Substrate Type	Key Activated Intermediate	Common Downstream Nucleophile	Main Structure Formed	Typical Experimental Task
Hydroxyl substrate	NHS active carbonate	Amine	Carbamate	First convert the hydroxyl site into a controllable activated entry point, then introduce the amine component
Carboxyl substrate	NHS active ester	Amine	Amide	First prepare the active ester, then carry out stepwise coupling, labeling, or downstream connection
Ligand precursor bearing a hydroxyl or amino group	NHS-type activated carbonate or activated carbamate	Primary amino sites on proteins or other molecules	Stable covalent linkage, commonly carbamate-type linkages	Ligand–protein conjugation, oligonucleotide site functionalization, biomolecule modification

 

2.2 The Value of the Hydroxyl Route: First Establishing a More Readily Controlled Activation Entry Point

In the hydroxyl route, the experimental value of DSC is mainly reflected in the pre-activation step. The work of Ghosh and co-workers in 1992 showed that DSC can be used for the alkoxycarbonylation of amines. A 2011 Synlett methodology study further demonstrated that, in the presence of catalytic pyridine, DSC can achieve one-pot carbamate formation between alcohols and hindered amino acids or amino acid esters. The significance of this route for experimental design lies in the fact that the hydroxyl site is first converted into a more readily controlled NHS active carbonate, after which the downstream amine component is introduced. This is particularly suitable for substrate combinations that do not perform well under direct pairing conditions.

 

2.3 The Value of the Carboxyl Route: Recasting the Bond-Forming Task as “First Prepare the Intermediate, Then Proceed to the Downstream Connection”

In the carboxyl route, the core role of DSC is to convert a carboxylic acid into an NHS active ester. As early as 1979, Ogura and co-workers introduced DSC as a reagent for the synthesis of active esters and pointed out that it could be used for the preparation of active esters and peptides. For experimentalists, this route is suitable for tasks in which an intermediate needs to be obtained first in an isolable, storable, or transferable form before subsequent amidation, labeling, or stepwise coupling is carried out. The value of the carboxyl route does not lie merely in the fact that it “can form an amide,” but in the fact that it allows the activation stage itself to be organized and controlled independently.

 

2.4 The Value of the Ligand/Carrier Functionalization Route: Using an NHS-Type Linking Entry Point for Subsequent Coupling at Primary Amino Sites

In this route, the main role of DSC is to first convert carriers, ligands, or solid-supported substrates containing hydroxyl sites into N-hydroxysuccinimide-type active carbonates that can continue reacting, or to construct related molecules as N-hydroxysuccinimide-type active carbonates or active carbamates suitable for subsequent coupling at primary amino sites. In 1999, Morpurgo, Bayer, and Wilchek reported that N-hydroxysuccinimide-type active carbonates and active carbamates can serve as primary-amine-reactive reagents for conjugation at lysine sites on proteins. In 2019, Meschaninova and co-workers reported that the free 5′-hydroxyl of a protected oligonucleotide on solid phase can first be activated by DSC to form a 5′-N-hydroxysuccinimide-type active carbonate, which can then react with amino-containing ligands to achieve 5′-site functionalization. The methodological value of DSC in such tasks lies in providing an NHS-type activation entry point that can be handled stepwise for subsequent connection to primary amino sites.

 

2.5 Summary

These three pathways jointly show that DSC is better suited to experimental tasks in which the activation step needs to be organized independently. As long as the research goal involves first forming an intermediate that can be further utilized and then proceeding to a downstream connection step, the value of DSC is relatively clear. If, however, the experimental goal is only a routine one-step direct bond formation and there is no explicit need to manage the intermediate, the advantages of this route are usually far less pronounced than in the scenarios discussed above.

 

3. Several Experimental Decision Points for Determining Whether DSC Deserves Priority

 

To judge whether DSC is suitable for the current task, the first question is whether the experiment requires an N-hydroxysuccinimide (NHS)-type activated intermediate that can be organized independently. If the research goal itself is to first obtain a reusable activation entry point and then proceed to subsequent coupling, labeling, or functionalization steps, the methodological advantages of DSC are usually easier to realize.

 

1. Solvent choice directly affects whether this type of pre-activation route is genuinely practical. A 2021 study by Li and Vanderah showed that DSC has low solubility in dichloromethane, ethyl acetate, tetrahydrofuran, and isopropanol; is only slightly soluble in acetone and acetonitrile; is soluble in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF); and is highly soluble in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO). That study also pointed out that DMSO is practically helpful for removing excess DSC. Therefore, in DSC-based systems, the solvent does not merely affect whether the reaction can proceed smoothly; it also affects pre-activation efficiency and the difficulty of work-up.

 

2. In addition to solvent, the base and the way the reaction is organized are equally important. The 2011 methodological study on DSC-mediated carbamate formation was carried out in the presence of catalytic pyridine and emphasized that the method allows one-pot conversion of alcohols with hindered amino acids or amino acid esters under mild conditions. This indicates that DSC-related reactions should not be understood simply as “direct reaction between substrate and reagent,” but rather should be evaluated together with the base, steric hindrance, the pre-activation step, and the downstream coupling step.

 

3. Five questions worth asking first when deciding whether DSC deserves priority 

 

Decision Point	Question to Ask First	Key Point of Evaluation
Whether the intermediate is worth managing separately	Does the current task require explicitly obtaining an NHS-type activation entry point?	This is the first step in deciding whether DSC should be prioritized
Type of starting substrate	Is the current starting point a hydroxyl group, a carboxyl group, or a ligand precursor bearing a hydroxyl or amino group?	Different starting points correspond to different activated intermediates and downstream tasks
Reaction organization	Is it necessary to optimize the pre-activation stage separately from the downstream coupling stage?	The advantage of DSC often appears in a two-stage workflow of “pre-activation first, then connection”
Steric hindrance and substrate features	Is the current substrate poorly suited to direct pairing?	In such cases, the pre-activated intermediate is more likely to show methodological value
Solvent and work-up	Is DSC sufficiently soluble in the current solvent, and can excess reagent be removed easily?	Solubility and work-up directly affect whether this route is truly practical

 

4. Product Navigation Table for DSC Pre-Activation and Construction of NHS-Type Intermediates (Choose Table 1–Table 4 by Research or Experimental Goal)

 

Research or Experimental Goal	Which Table to Read First	Why This Table Should Be Prioritized	Which Table to Cross-Reference	Navigation Notes
Want to first clarify the core reagent framework of the DSC system and distinguish the roles played by DSC, NHS, Sulfo-NHS, and succinimide	Table 1	Table 1 brings together the most central activating reagents, active-ester-forming components, and related by-products in the DSC route, making it the best starting point for understanding the main logic of the system	Then see Table 2	First sort out the division of roles among the core components, then move on to the comparison activation systems; this makes it easier to judge where DSC should be placed in practice
Want to compare DSC with classic activation systems such as DCC, EDC, CDI, and 4-NPC, and determine which activation route to start from	Table 2	Table 2 directly corresponds to common comparison reagents for hydroxyl activation, carboxyl activation, and carbonylation, making it the most suitable for methodological route comparison	Then see Table 1	First use Table 2 to establish the comparison framework, then look back at DSC, NHS, and Sulfo-NHS in Table 1 to judge more clearly whether to build a DSC-centered route or run parallel screening with comparison systems
Want to establish basic conditions for the sequence “activate the alcohol first, then couple with an amine to form a carbamate”	Table 3	Table 3 provides common bases, catalysts, and representative model substrates such as benzyl alcohol, benzylamine, and ethanolamine, making it the best starting point for building a basic reaction window	Then see Table 2	First use Table 3 to set up the substrate and base conditions, then cross-reference activators such as DSC, CDI, and 4-NPC in Table 2 to compare the efficiency and side reactions of different hydroxyl activation routes
Want to study where DSC fits in the construction of NHS active esters from carboxylic acids, or compare when NHS or Sulfo-NHS should be chosen	Table 1	Table 1 concentrates the components most directly tied to active-ester logic, such as NHS, Sulfo-NHS, and DSC, making it easier to first define the backbone of the system	Then see Table 2 and Table 4	If the goal is to move further into experimental conditions, Table 2 can supplement carboxylic-acid activation comparison systems such as EDC and DCC, while Table 4 can supplement judgments involving buffer and solvent environments
Want to screen aqueous coupling conditions for protein primary amino sites, lysine sites, or other hydrophilic substrates	Table 4	Table 4 concentrates buffer-related components such as carbonate/bicarbonate, HEPES, borate, and Tris, as well as key solvents such as DMSO and DMF, making it more suitable for first judging whether the reaction environment is appropriate	Then see Table 1 and Table 3	First choose the correct buffer system and solvent environment, then combine NHS/Sulfo-NHS in Table 1 with model substrates such as lysine and glycine in Table 3 to move more quickly into comparable coupling-condition screening
Want to compare the effects of organic-phase versus aqueous/mixed-phase conditions on the stability of DSC or NHS-type intermediates and on coupling efficiency	Table 4	Table 4 covers the most critical set of solvent and buffer conditions in DSC-based systems, making it the best place to establish comparisons among environmental variables	Then see Table 1	After fixing the reaction environment, revisit the choice of activating reagent in Table 1; this is more helpful for judging whether DSC, NHS, or a Sulfo-NHS route should be used
Want to study the influence of bases and catalysts on both the activation stage and the subsequent amine-attack stage	Table 3	Table 3 places pyridine, triethylamine, DIPEA, and DMAP together with representative model substrates, making it best suited for screening condition variables	Then see Table 2	Only after clarifying the effects of bases and catalysts can the different activating reagents in Table 2 be compared more accurately, so that “reagent differences” and “condition differences” are not confused
Want to study site selectivity or side-reaction control, for example by comparing the behavior of primary amines, amino alcohols, and lysine side chains in activation systems	Table 3	Ethanolamine, glycine, and L-lysine in Table 3 are precisely the most common model substrates for such studies	Then see Table 4	In site-selectivity studies, it is not enough to look only at the substrate itself; it is also necessary to determine whether the buffer and solvent environment may amplify competing reactions or hydrolysis, so Table 4 should be consulted in parallel
Want to evaluate whether primary-amine-containing buffer components such as Tris may interfere with NHS/DSC coupling, and whether HEPES or carbonate buffers are more suitable	Table 4	Table 4 already brings together key buffer components such as Tris, HEPES, sodium bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, and boric acid, making it the most direct place to evaluate buffer-system choice	Then see Table 1	First clarify the buffer environment, then revisit the NHS/Sulfo-NHS activation routes in Table 1; this makes it easier to explain differences in coupling results observed under different buffer systems
Want to build a basic DSC research platform suitable for literature reproduction or methodological comparison	Table 1	Table 1 is the most suitable starting point for the system, allowing the core activating reagent and related active-ester components to be defined first	Then see Table 3 and Table 4, and finally Table 2	In practice, building a platform usually starts by fixing the core reagents, then supplementing with bases/model substrates and solvents/buffers, and finally adding comparison systems such as DCC, EDC, CDI, and 4-NPC to form a more complete comparison framework

 

Table 1 | Core NHS-Type Activating Reagents, Active-Ester-Related Components, and Aqueous-Phase Activation Components

 

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Core NHS-type carbonate activating reagent	74124-79-1	D106171	N,N′-Disuccinimidyl Carbonate (DSC)	≥98%	The core activating reagent in DSC chemistry. It can direct hydroxyl groups toward active carbonate formation and can also be used to build NHS-type activated intermediates. It is suitable for comparing carbamate formation and subsequent primary-amine coupling conditions.
Classical NHS active ester construction component	6066-82-6	H109330	N-Hydroxysuccinimide (NHS)	≥98%	A classical component for constructing NHS active esters. It is suitable for use together with carboxylic-acid activation systems to establish comparative conditions for primary-amine coupling, labeling, or subsequent amidation.
Water-soluble NHS active ester construction component	106627-54-7	H109337	N-Hydroxysulfosuccinimide sodium salt	≥98%	A water-soluble NHS analogue, commonly used with EDC to construct more hydrophilic active esters. It is suitable for screening coupling conditions for proteins or other aqueous-phase substrates.
Leaving-group / by-product reference component	123-56-8	S104079	Succinimide	≥99%	Can serve as a reference component for monitoring leaving-group behavior in DSC/NHS activation systems and the effectiveness of post-reaction removal, and is also suitable for analyzing by-product composition after active-ester reactions.

 

Table 2 | Hydroxyl/Carboxyl Activation Comparison Reagents and Supporting Coupling Reagents

 

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Classical carbodiimide carboxylic-acid activating reagent	538-75-0	D106074	N,N′-Dicyclohexylcarbodiimide	≥99%	A classical carboxylic-acid activating reagent, suitable for comparison with NHS or Sulfo-NHS systems in terms of active ester formation efficiency, by-product handling, and downstream amine-coupling performance.
Carbonylation / activation comparison reagent	530-62-1	C109315	N,N′-Carbonyldiimidazole (CDI)	≥99%	Commonly used for carbonyl activation and the construction of activated intermediates. It is suitable for comparing how different carbonylation/activation pathways affect the formation of carbamates, carbonates, or amides relative to DSC.
Water-soluble carbodiimide carboxylic-acid activating reagent	25952-53-8	E106172	N-(3-Dimethylaminopropyl)-N′-ethylcarbodiimide hydrochloride	≥98%	A water-soluble carbodiimide, commonly used together with NHS or Sulfo-NHS. It is suitable for establishing comparison conditions for the conversion of carboxylic acids to active esters in aqueous or hydrophilic systems.
Classical hydroxyl activation comparison reagent	7693-46-1	N159046	4-Nitrophenyl Chloroformate	≥98%(T)	A classical hydroxyl-activating reagent, suitable for parallel comparison with DSC in terms of active carbonate formation efficiency, leaving-group differences, and subsequent amine attack behavior.

 

Table 3 | Supporting Bases, Catalysts, and Representative Alcohol/Amine Model Substrates

 

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Weak base / co-catalytic component	110-86-1	P111513	Pyridine	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.8%	A commonly used weak base / co-catalyst, suitable for optimizing carbamate formation conditions after DSC-mediated hydroxyl activation, and also useful for comparing how different base strengths affect activation and side reactions.
Common acid scavenger base	121-44-8	T140677	Triethylamine	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.5%, Water ≤ 50 ppm	A commonly used acid scavenger base, suitable for trapping acidic by-products and maintaining the basic environment required for primary-amine attack in DSC, 4-NPC, or CDI systems.
Sterically hindered organic base	7087-68-5	D109322	N,N-Diisopropylethylamine	Distilled grade, ≥99.5%	A sterically hindered organic base, suitable for reducing nucleophilic side reactions and for comparing the formation and stability of active carbonates or active esters under different base conditions.
Nucleophilic catalyst / acyl-transfer catalyst	1122-58-3	D109207	4-Dimethylaminopyridine	≥99%	A classical nucleophilic catalyst, suitable for promoting acyl/carbonyl transfer and commonly used to compare whether hydroxyl activation or subsequent coupling steps can be accelerated.
Primary alcohol model substrate	100-51-6	B108202	Benzyl alcohol	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.8%	A representative primary alcohol model substrate, suitable for establishing DSC- or 4-NPC-mediated active carbonate formation conditions and for examining subsequent carbamate formation.
Primary amine model substrate	100-46-9	B108477	Benzylamine	AR, ≥99%	A representative primary amine model substrate, suitable for evaluating the coupling efficiency and selectivity of active carbonates or NHS active esters toward primary amines.
Amino alcohol model substrate	141-43-5	E103808	Ethanolamine	Distilled grade, ≥99.5%	An amino alcohol model substrate bearing both a hydroxyl group and a primary amine, suitable for investigating site selectivity, over-activation, and side-reaction control in DSC systems.
Amino-acid-type primary amine model substrate	56-40-6	G432934	Glycine	UltraBio™, molecular biology grade, ultrapure grade, ≥99%(NT)	One of the simplest amino-acid-type primary amine model substrates, suitable for comparing the coupling efficiency of active esters toward small-molecule amines and also for evaluating quenching conditions.
Lysine-site mimic substrate	56-87-1	L598932	L-Lysine	Moligand™, ≥98%, Metal < 500 ppm	An amino acid model containing an ε-amino group, suitable for simulating primary-amine coupling behavior at protein lysine sites and for comparing the reactivity of NHS-type intermediates in bioconjugation.

 

Table 4 | Primary-Amine-Free Buffer Components and Key Reaction Solvents

 

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Ether-type anhydrous reaction solvent	109-99-9	T1491789	Tetrahydrofuran (THF)	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.9%, inhibitor-free, H2O ≤ 30 ppm	A commonly used ether-type anhydrous solvent, suitable for comparing the solubility of DSC, activation rate, and substrate compatibility in a moderately polar aprotic environment.
Bicarbonate buffer component	144-55-8	S432109	Sodium bicarbonate	Anhydrous grade, reagent grade, high purity, ≥99.5%	Commonly used together with sodium carbonate to establish mildly basic, primary-amine-free buffer conditions, suitable for aqueous or mixed-phase coupling of NHS active esters with primary amines.
Carbonate buffer component	497-19-8	S432760	Sodium carbonate	Anhydrous grade, high purity, reagent grade, ≥99.5%	Commonly used together with sodium bicarbonate to adjust buffer alkalinity, suitable for comparing the stability and coupling efficiency of NHS-type intermediates across different pH ranges.
Strongly polar aprotic solvent	67-68-5	D433293	Dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO)	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.9%	A strongly polar aprotic solvent, suitable for dissolving DSC and some polar substrates, and also useful for evaluating excess activator removal and work-up strategies.
Organic-phase anhydrous activation solvent	75-09-2	D433565	Dichloromethane	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.8%, containing 40–150 ppm amylene as stabilizer	A classical organic-phase reaction solvent, suitable for anhydrous activation steps in DSC, 4-NPC, and CDI systems, and convenient for comparing reaction efficiency under organic-phase conditions.
Polar aprotic solvent	75-05-8	A119012	Anhydrous Acetonitrile (ACN)	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.8%, H2O ≤ 0.003%	A polar aprotic solvent, suitable for comparing the solubility and activation performance of DSC in a highly polar yet low-nucleophilicity solvent.
Strongly polar aprotic solvent	68-12-2	D119450	N,N-Dimethylformamide (DMF)	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.8%	A commonly used strongly polar aprotic solvent, suitable for dissolving polar substrates and establishing homogeneous conditions for DSC-, NHS-, or Sulfo-NHS-related coupling reactions.
Extraction / separation-related solvent	141-78-6	E119698	Ethyl acetate	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.8%	Commonly used for extraction, recrystallization, or solvent screening in some activation systems, and suitable for comparing work-up and product-isolation performance in DSC-related reactions.
Alcohol solvent for condition evaluation	67-63-0	I119459	Isopropyl Alcohol (IPA)	Anhydrous grade, ≥99.5%	A common alcohol solvent that can be used to examine how an alcohol environment affects activator stability and side reactions, and is also suitable for comparing cleaning or work-up steps.
Moderately polar ketone solvent	67-64-1	A486158	Acetone	Natural, ≥97%	A moderately polar ketone solvent, suitable for comparing how different solvents affect the solubility of DSC or 4-NPC systems and their reaction organization.
Boric acid / borate buffer source component	10043-35-3	B431191	Boric acid	European Pharmacopoeia (Ph.Eur), puriss. p.a., ACS, ≥99.8%, buffer substance	Suitable for establishing primary-amine-free buffer conditions and for examining the coupling performance of NHS active esters in near-neutral to mildly basic environments.
Primary-amine-containing buffer comparison component	77-86-1	T110601	Tris(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane (Tris base)	Molecular biology grade, ≥99.9%(T)	A commonly used buffer component, but it itself contains a primary amine. It is suitable as an evaluation target for competing reactions or quenching conditions in NHS/DSC systems, and is not suitable for direct use as the main coupling buffer.
Primary-amine-free buffer component	7365-45-9	H109408	HEPES	Molecular biology grade, ≥99.5%(T)	A commonly used primary-amine-free buffer component, suitable for establishing a relatively mild aqueous coupling environment and for comparing the stability and coupling efficiency of NHS-type intermediates in different buffer systems.

 

Note: The products listed above are representative Aladdin products. For more product specifications, please refer to the product list at the end of the article or search by “product name / CAS / catalog number” on the Aladdin official website.

 

References

 

[1] Ogura H, Kobayashi T, Shimizu K, Kawabe K, Takeda K. A novel active ester synthesis reagent (N,N′-disuccinimidyl carbonate). Tetrahedron Letters. 1979;20(49):4745–4748. doi:10.1016/S0040-4039(01)86699-5.

 

[2] Ghosh AK, Duong TT, McKee SP, Thompson WJ. N,N′-Disuccinimidyl Carbonate: A Useful Reagent for Alkoxycarbonylation of Amines. Tetrahedron Letters. 1992;33:2781–2784. doi:10.1016/S0040-4039(00)78856-3.

 

[3] Li H, Chen C-Y, Balsells J. Highly Efficient Carbamate Formation from Alcohols and Hindered Amino Acids or Esters Using N,N′-Disuccinimidyl Carbonate (DSC). Synlett. 2011;(10):1454–1458. doi:10.1055/s-0030-1260584.

 

[4] Morpurgo M, Bayer EA, Wilchek M. N-hydroxysuccinimide carbonates and carbamates are useful reactive reagents for coupling ligands to lysines on proteins. Journal of Biochemical and Biophysical Methods. 1999;38(1):17–28. doi:10.1016/S0165-022X(98)00027-X.

 

[5] Li T, Vanderah D. Solubility of N,N′-Disuccinimidyl Carbonate and its relevance to polysaccharide functionalization. Analytical Biochemistry. 2021;626:114250. doi:10.1016/j.ab.2021.114250.

 

[6] Meschaninova MI, Novopashina DS, Semikolenova OA, Silnikov VN, Venyaminova AG. Novel Convenient Approach to the Solid-Phase Synthesis of Oligonucleotide Conjugates. Molecules. 2019;24(23):4266. doi:10.3390/molecules24234266.

 

[7] Barré A, Ţînţaş M-L, Levacher V, Papamicaël C, Gembus V. An Overview of the Synthesis of Highly Versatile N-Hydroxysuccinimide Esters. Synthesis. 2017;49(03):472–483. doi:10.1055/s-0036-1588607.

 

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