From Spectral Mismatch to Device Gain: Key Mechanisms, Experimental Guidance, and Aladdin Material Selection for Lanthanide Upconversion and Downconversion (Quantum Cutting) in Solar Cells
From Spectral Mismatch to Device Gain: Key Mechanisms, Experimental Guidance, and Aladdin Material Selection for Lanthanide Upconversion and Downconversion (Quantum Cutting) in Solar Cells
Solar-cell efficiency is limited not only by whether the material is “good,” but also—crucially—by spectral mismatch losses arising from the mismatch between the solar spectrum and the cell bandgap (Eg):
- High-energy photons (E ≫ Eg): after absorption, photogenerated carriers rapidly relax to the band edges, and the excess energy is mainly dissipated as heat (carrier thermalization).
- Low-energy photons (E < Eg): these photons are difficult to absorb and often transmit through the device, generating no current.
- Under the detailed-balance (Shockley–Queisser) framework for single-junction solar cells, unavoidable losses such as thermalization + transmission constrain the efficiency limit to roughly 30–33%: early classic derivations often yielded values on the order of ~30%, while under the AM1.5G standard spectrum a commonly cited peak is ~33.16% (optimal bandgap ~1.34 eV).
The purpose of spectral conversion is to convert “less useful photons” into photons that are better matched to bandgap absorption before light enters the solar cell, thereby reducing spectral mismatch losses. Lanthanide ions (predominantly Ln³⁺, with a small number of systems involving Ln²⁺) are important candidates for such “photon management” because of their unique 4f energy-level structures.
Comparison of Spectral-Conversion Strategies: Downshifting, Downconversion (Quantum Cutting), and Upconversion
Category | English | Photon-number relationship | Primary spectral loss addressed | Typical incident/excitation light (examples) | Typical output light (examples) | Recommended placement | Key bottlenecks | Common engineering approaches |
Downshifting | Downshifting (Luminescent Downshifting, LDS) | 1 → 1 | Thermalization loss from high-energy photons: “shift” UV/blue photons to wavelengths more readily absorbed by the cell | UV/blue (broadband) | Visible / NIR (depends on the cell bandgap) | Front side of the cell (front layer) | Parasitic absorption in the layer; escape due to isotropic emission; layer transparency/stability | Choose highly transparent hosts; enhance absorption (allowed transitions/sensitization); refractive-index matching and AR design to reduce escape |
Downconversion (Quantum Cutting) | Downconversion / Quantum Cutting | 1 → 2 (ideal) | Thermalization loss from high-energy photons: split “excess energy” into two photons closer to Eg | UV/visible (depends on donor absorption) | Common target: ~1000 nm (Yb³⁺ emission, close to c-Si) | Front side of the cell (front layer) | Absorption remains weak; higher doping often required but prone to concentration quenching; emission escape reduces usable photons at the device | Donor–acceptor level matching (e.g., Tb → 2Yb, Pr → Yb, etc.); low-phonon-energy hosts; optical coupling/reflective structures to enhance in-coupling and photon capture |
Upconversion | Upconversion (ETU/ESA, etc.) | 2 → 1 | Sub-bandgap transmission loss: combine low-energy NIR photons into higher-energy photons | NIR: commonly 980 nm (Yb sensitization), or 1480–1580 nm / ~1.5 μm (Er-related) | Visible (green/red) or higher-energy NIR | Rear side of the cell (back layer) + back reflector to “send” emission back into the cell (rear-attached designs are common) | Extremely low nonlinear efficiency under low irradiance; narrow absorption bands; surface quenching/OH⁻ in nanomaterials | Broadband sensitization (“antenna”); core–shell structures to suppress quenching; cavities/plasmonics/back reflectors to enhance field and coupling (evaluate parasitic absorption and heating) |
Why Lanthanide Ions: Strengths and Limitations
Strengths: “Atom-like” 4f levels enable energy-pathway engineering
1. Relatively stable energy levels and sharp-line spectra
- The 4f electrons of Ln³⁺ are shielded by outer 5s/5p electrons, so their energy levels are relatively less sensitive to the host environment.
- Typical features include narrow-line absorption/emission and clearly defined energy-level structures.
- Note: in solids, crystal-field (Stark) splitting still occurs, and a few transitions are more sensitive to local symmetry (lanthanides are not “completely environment-independent”).
2. Many levels and long lifetimes: “programmable” energy transfer
(1) Multi-step energy ladders and long excited-state lifetimes make pathways such as energy transfer, stepwise excitation, and cooperative transfer easier to realize.
(2) This is well suited for designing:
- Energy addition: Upconversion
- Energy splitting: Downconversion / Quantum Cutting
Limitations: weak 4f–4f transitions and narrow absorption (not solar-friendly)
1. Root cause: small absorption cross-section + narrow absorption bands
(1) For most Ln³⁺, 4f–4f transition strengths are weak (often described as “quasi-forbidden”), meaning:
- It is difficult to drive efficiently using broadband sunlight at low power density.
- Both upconversion and downconversion suffer from an “insufficient absorption” bottleneck.
2. Accordingly, research typically advances along three main directions
(1) Enhancing absorption
- Sensitizers and broadband “antenna” absorbers (broadening the narrow absorption entrance)
(2) Suppressing non-radiative losses
- Low-phonon-energy hosts (e.g., fluorides)
- Control of defects and OH⁻ (high-vibration groups strongly quench emission)
- Core–shell structures in nanomaterials to reduce surface quenching
(3) Increasing “externally usable photons”
- Refractive-index matching; anti-reflection/reflective structures; layer thickness and optical coupling design
- Goal: reduce escape caused by isotropic emission, so that more light enters the cell and is absorbed
Photoluminescence Quantum Yields vs Solar-Cell Quantum Efficiencies
Abbrev. | Common English term | Definition (numerator / denominator) | Can it exceed 100%? | Scope / notes |
IQY | Internal Quantum Yield / Internal PLQY | Number of photons generated inside the sample / Number of photons absorbed by the sample | Yes (for quantum cutting, the ideal limit approaches ~200%) | Captures the material’s intrinsic photon-conversion capability; preferably measured by absolute integrating-sphere methods, with excitation conditions and the absorptance calculation clearly reported |
EQY (or ext-PLQY) | External Quantum Yield / External PLQY | Number of photons emitted out of the sample / Number of photons absorbed by the sample | In principle, yes (if IQY > 100% and light-extraction is not too low) | Includes extraction efficiency, waveguiding/total internal reflection, interface reflection, reabsorption, and scattering; typically closer to the usable output from “sample + optical structure” |
EQE (PV) | External Quantum Efficiency | Number of electrons collected by the solar cell / Number of photons incident on the device (wavelength-resolved) | Typically ≤100% for solar cells | Device-side PV metric; used to quantify how much additional photocurrent is obtained after integrating a spectral-conversion layer |
IQE (PV) | Internal Quantum Efficiency | Number of electrons collected by the solar cell / Number of photons absorbed by the cell | Typically ≤100% | Evaluates carrier collection after removing optical losses (reflection/transmission); not the same concept as PL IQY |
Note: In this table, IQY/EQY are photoluminescence quantum yields (photon/photon), whereas IQE/EQE for solar cells are device quantum efficiencies (electron/photon). Do not mix these two sets of metrics.
Upconversion: Classic Systems and Why It Is “Difficult Under Sunlight”
1. Most common mechanism: Energy-Transfer Upconversion (ETU)
- ETU (Energy Transfer Upconversion) is one of the most common—and often relatively efficient—lanthanide upconversion pathways. A typical pair is Yb³⁺/Er³⁺: Yb³⁺ has a comparatively stronger absorption band near ~980 nm. After excitation, Yb³⁺ transfers energy to Er³⁺; a second energy-transfer step (often together with processes such as ESA) promotes Er³⁺ stepwise to higher excited states, ultimately producing green/red upconverted emission.
- For sub-bandgap photon recovery in crystalline silicon, note that c-Si has a room-temperature bandgap of ~1.12 eV, corresponding to an absorption edge near ~1100 nm. Longer-wavelength NIR light (>1100 nm) is largely not absorbed by silicon. Therefore, silicon-oriented UC focuses on converting transmitted NIR beyond 1100 nm into higher-energy photons. In device demonstrations, one often sees systems and test conditions related to ~1.5 μm (Er³⁺-related absorption bands).
2. Why β-NaYF₄ is commonly used: low phonon energy is critical
- Upconversion relies on multiple excitations and sufficient lifetimes of intermediate states. If the host material has a high phonon energy, multiphonon relaxation dissipates energy more readily, leading to a significant drop in UC efficiency. Thus, low-phonon-energy fluoride hosts are generally advantageous.
- Within the NaREF₄ family, β-phase (hexagonal) NaYF₄ has long been considered one of the most outstanding UC hosts (and in practice it is often observed that β-phase outperforms α-phase).
3. A key device-level reality: power density at 1 sun is often insufficient
- Upconversion is intrinsically nonlinear: the lower the excitation intensity, the lower the probability that two (or more) photons can “meet” to complete the UC process. Many “very bright” UC results are obtained under high-intensity monochromatic laser excitation, and directly extrapolating these results to natural sunlight (1 sun) often overestimates practical device gains.
- In a classic “silicon cell + upconversion layer” demonstration, a device EQE of ~3.4% was reported under 1523 nm monochromatic pumping at 2.4 W/cm² (= 24,000 W/m²). This is an important result, but it also clearly indicates that without optical concentration, absorption broadening, and optical enhancement, significant gains under natural sunlight are typically difficult. (A commonly used 1 sun irradiance level is ~1000 W/m².)
UC vs QC: Why They Are “Difficult Under Sunlight” (Comparison Table)
Dimension | Upconversion UC (2 → 1) | Downconversion / Quantum Cutting QC (1 → 2) |
Spectral loss addressed | Sub-bandgap transmission: “lift” low-energy photons that would otherwise pass through the cell | Thermalization loss: split excess photon energy into two photons closer to the bandgap |
Key wavelength relationship to c-Si | c-Si absorption edge ~1100 nm; UC targets recovery of transmitted NIR >1100 nm | Yb³⁺ ~1 μm emission (~980–1030 nm; host-dependent shift) is commonly used as a near-bandgap output (close to but slightly shorter than the ~1.1 μm edge) |
Main reason it is difficult under sunlight | Nonlinearity + low irradiance: UC probability is very low at 1 sun, so gains are hard to realize | Often limited by weak/narrow absorption entrance; device optical losses can substantially erode material-side benefits |
Typical systems (examples) | Yb³⁺/Er³⁺, Yb³⁺/Tm³⁺ (ETU/ESA, etc.) | Tb³⁺ → 2Yb³⁺ cooperative energy transfer; Pr³⁺ → Yb³⁺ two-step energy transfer, etc. |
Host/material engineering focus | Low-phonon-energy hosts (β-NaYF₄, etc.); core–shell structures to suppress surface quenching and OH⁻ | Low-phonon/low-defect hosts + optimization of dopant ratios and energy-migration pathways to avoid migration to defect sinks |
Placement intuition | Typically on the rear side of the cell, with a back reflector to return emission into the cell | Typically on the front side to process high-energy photons; requires high transparency, low parasitic absorption, and reduced emission escape |
Representative “high-intensity demonstration” data (condition-sensitive) | Example: relatively high device EQE reported under 1523 nm, 2.4 W/cm² monochromatic pumping (not directly achievable at 1 sun) | IQY >100% at the material level does not guarantee device gain; absorption and optical coupling must deliver photons into the cell |
Downconversion / Quantum Cutting: Why It Is More “Matched” to Silicon
1. Core concept: splitting one high-energy photon into two near-bandgap photons
- For crystalline silicon (c-Si), high-energy photons (shorter wavelengths) can be absorbed, but the excess energy above the bandgap is largely lost as heat through carrier thermalization. By contrast, longer-wavelength photons beyond ~1100 nm are difficult for silicon to absorb. The concept of quantum cutting is to split the energy of one high-energy photon into two lower-energy photons that are closer to the bandgap. From the standpoint of reducing thermalization loss, this approach is conceptually better aligned with silicon solar cells.
2. Why Yb³⁺ is often used as the “terminal acceptor”
- Yb³⁺ has a very simple energy-level structure. Its dominant emission arises from the ²F₅/₂ → ²F₇/₂ transition, with an energy gap of about 10,000–10,200 cm⁻¹, corresponding to ~980–1000 nm (often extending toward ~1030 nm depending on the host). This makes Yb³⁺ an excellent “energy-packaging endpoint”: as long as the donor provides slightly more than roughly 2×E(Yb) and the energy can be distributed efficiently, a single absorption event can, in principle, be “split” into two NIR emissions. Theoretically, the material-side internal quantum yield can approach ~200%.
Quantum-Cutting Routes and Practical Bottlenecks
Typical donor → acceptor routes (example table)
Route (donor → acceptor) | Main mechanism | Absorption entrance (examples) | Main output | Meaning for silicon (intuitive explanation) |
Tb³⁺ → 2Yb³⁺ | Cooperative energy transfer (the donor transfers energy to two acceptors simultaneously) | UV/visible (depending on donor absorption/sensitization) | Two ~1 μm NIR photons (Yb³⁺) | Increases the number of near-bandgap photons, mechanistically counteracting thermalization loss |
Pr³⁺ → Yb³⁺ (×2) | Two-step energy transfer (the donor sequentially distributes energy to two Yb³⁺ ions) | Visible/UV (system-dependent) | ~1 μm (Yb³⁺) | Same as above; a common route that is convenient for screening and benchmarking |
Summary: The primary criterion for route selection is whether the donor can efficiently and reproducibly partition the energy from a single absorbed photon into two portions, and—via energy transfer—inject them separately into the ~1 μm emission channel of Yb³⁺, while suppressing non-radiative dissipation and competing pathways as much as possible.
Key Hurdles from “Material IQY > 100%” to “Device-Level Gain”
Hurdle | Why it becomes limiting | How to verify (recommended controls) | Common improvement approaches |
① Weak/narrow absorption entrance | Many systems are still limited by narrow absorption; broadband sunlight cannot be harvested efficiently | Always report absorption spectrum/absorptance; compare device-side changes at the same layer thickness | Sensitization/broadband antenna absorbers; introduce allowed-transition absorption channels |
② Concentration quenching / defect dissipation | Higher doping is often required to boost transfer, but energy migration is easily trapped by defects | Doping-dependence studies (intensity/lifetime/QY vs dopant concentration) | Optimize dopant ratios; improve crystal quality; core–shell/isolation structures |
③ Emission escape and poor optical coupling | Emitted NIR photons are not guaranteed to enter and be absorbed by the cell; interface reflection/scattering causes escape | Modify index matching/thickness/reflectors and check whether device-side improvement follows consistently | Refractive-index matching; AR/reflective structures; thickness and optical-path engineering |
④ Reliability / packaging compatibility (recommended) | Front-side layers must withstand UV, damp heat, and thermal cycling; some sensitizers may be unstable | Compare spectra/QY/device response before and after accelerated aging | Use stable inorganic systems; moisture/oxygen barrier encapsulation; avoid structures with high parasitic absorption |
Summary: The key to QC is not only maximizing the material IQY, but also simultaneously achieving: sufficient absorptance under sunlight, minimal non-radiative loss along the energy-transfer chain, effective coupling of the emitted photons into the cell (and absorption by the cell), and long-term stability and packaging compatibility.
Experimental Checklist for Upconversion vs Quantum Cutting: Key Tests, Mandatory Conditions, and Decision Criteria
Item | Upconversion (UC) | Downconversion / Quantum Cutting (DC/QC) |
Loss you aim to compensate | Sub-bandgap transmission (low-energy photons would otherwise not be absorbed) | High-energy thermalization (excess energy far above Eg is lost as heat) |
Typical target cells | c-Si, thin-film Si, etc. (focus on transmitted NIR) | c-Si, etc. (split UV/visible into photons closer to Eg; ~1000 nm is a common target) |
Recommended placement | Typically on the rear side of the cell (using transmitted sub-bandgap light), with a back reflector to return emission | Typically on the front side (processing high-energy photons); requires high transparency and low parasitic absorption |
Most sensitive aspect of light-source conditions | Extremely dependent on power density (nonlinear: efficiency drops sharply at low intensity) | Less sensitive than UC (closer to linear), but still strongly dependent on absorptance, transfer efficiency, and non-radiative losses |
Typical material systems | Yb³⁺/Er³⁺, Yb³⁺/Tm³⁺; hosts often include low-phonon fluorides such as β-NaYF₄ | Tb³⁺ → 2Yb³⁺ cooperative transfer; Pr³⁺–Yb³⁺ two-step transfer; Yb³⁺ often used as the acceptor (~1000 nm emission) |
Must-measure “material-side” metrics | Emission spectra; lifetimes; power dependence (slope/saturation); temperature dependence; report UCQY (or equivalent QY definition) with conditions | Absorption spectra (solar-harvesting capability); emission spectra (~1000 nm); IQY (>100%? preferably integrating-sphere/absolute methods to avoid geometry/reabsorption artifacts); concentration dependence and quenching evidence |
Must-report experimental conditions | Excitation wavelength/bandwidth; power density (ideally spot size and calibration); sample thickness and geometry; presence/absence of back reflector/cavity | Incident spectrum (broadband or monochromatic); sample absorptance/thickness; IQY/EQY definitions; whether reabsorption/scattering exists; interface reflection and index-matching strategy |
Most common “looks effective but yields no gain” pitfalls | Bright under high-power laser, but nearly no response at 1 sun; optical enhancement introduces parasitic absorption/heating that can harm the cell | IQY >100% but isotropic emission + interface reflection means most photons never enter the cell; high doping drives migration to defect sinks |
Quick criteria suggesting real efficiency improvement | Under near-1-sun effective power density, material QY remains meaningful and repeatable increases in device EQE/current are measurable | Demonstrate that emitted NIR actually enters and is absorbed by the cell: e.g., device EQE/current increases track optical-structure changes consistently, rather than only showing high material IQY |
Core Materials and Product List (Aladdin)
This list highlights three categories of key materials: lanthanide precursors and dopant sources for energy-transfer engineering (Ln salts/fluorides), low-phonon-energy fluoride hosts and key components for ZBLAN fluoride glass (to increase radiative transition probability and suppress multiphonon relaxation), and representative oxide host materials suitable for device-integration routes such as coatings, thin films, and ceramics.
Category | CAS No. | Aladdin Cat. No. | Product name | Grade/Purity | Role / key features |
Rare-earth nitrate precursor (sensitization/doping) | 10294-41-4 | C431281 | Cerium(III) nitrate hexahydrate | Ultra pure grade | Ce³⁺ solution-route precursor: used to introduce a broadband absorption entrance for sensitization or doping synthesis |
Rare-earth nitrate precursor (sensitization/doping) | 10294-41-4 | C105376 | Cerium nitrate hexahydrate | ≥99.5% metals basis | Same; commonly used in sol–gel, co-precipitation, and solution-doping routes |
Rare-earth nitrate precursor (sensitization/doping) | 10294-41-4 | C105378 | Cerium nitrate hexahydrate | ≥99.95% metals basis | Same; higher purity helps reduce impurity-related quenching risk |
Rare-earth nitrate precursor (sensitization/doping) | 10294-41-4 | C431280 | Cerium(III) nitrate hexahydrate | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.999% metals basis | Same; suitable for demanding optical/luminescence mechanism studies |
Rare-earth nitrate precursor (sensitization/doping) | 10294-41-4 | C431279 | Cerium(III) nitrate hexahydrate | ≥99% metals basis | Same |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (host/component) | 13709-49-4 | Y106114 | Yttrium fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis, powder | Typical fluoride host/component (e.g., YF₃-based systems) for RE-doped luminescence and energy-transfer materials |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (host/component) | 13709-49-4 | Y106115 | Yttrium fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.9% metals basis | Same |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (energy-transfer chain/component) | 13765-26-9 | G119154 | Gadolinium(III) fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis, powder | Component for Gd³⁺-related energy-transfer chains; used in luminescent-material system design |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (energy-transfer chain/component) | 13765-26-9 | G140159 | Gadolinium(III) fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.9% metals basis, powder | Same |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (candidate donor) | 13709-42-7 | N113328 | Neodymium fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis | Nd³⁺ as a level-matching candidate donor (e.g., Nd–Yb) for spectral-conversion screening |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (candidate donor) | 13709-42-7 | N122097 | Neodymium fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.9% metals basis | Same |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (candidate donor) | 13760-78-6 | H119102 | Holmium(III) fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis, powder | Ho³⁺ as a level-matching candidate donor (Ho–Yb, etc.) for exploratory studies |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (candidate donor) | 13760-78-6 | H1419778 | Holmium(III) fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.9% metals basis, powder | Same |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (enhanced absorption / sensitization entrance) | 7758-88-5 | C105384 | Cerium fluoride | ≥99.9% metals basis | Ce³⁺-related approach for a stronger absorption entrance/sensitization (more favorable than f–f absorption) |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (enhanced absorption / sensitization entrance) | 7758-88-5 | C105383 | Cerium fluoride | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | Same; higher purity helps suppress impurity absorption and quenching |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (UC activator) | 13760-83-3 | E118852 | Erbium fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.9% metals basis | Er³⁺ classic UC activator (often paired with Yb³⁺) |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (UC activator) | 13760-83-3 | E684644 | Erbium fluoride | ≥99.5% | Same |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (UC activator) | 13760-83-3 | E106116 | Erbium fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis | Same; for high-requirement luminescence/UC systems |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (DC donor / luminescent system) | 13765-25-8 | E123599 | Europium(III) fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.5% metals basis | Eu³⁺ often used as an emitter/acceptor in energy-transfer-chain systems |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (DC donor / luminescent system) | 13765-25-8 | E119159 | Europium(III) fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis | Same |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (UC activator) | 13760-79-7 | T119081 | Thulium(III) fluoride, anhydrous | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis, powder, anhydrous | Tm³⁺ classic UC activator (often paired with Yb³⁺) for extended emission design |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (QC donor) | 13708-63-9 | T171307 | Terbium(III) fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.995% metals basis | Tb³⁺ classic QC donor; enables cooperative transfer to 2×Yb³⁺ |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (QC donor) | 13708-63-9 | T171306 | Terbium(III) fluoride | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | Same |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (QC donor) | 13708-63-9 | T119247 | Terbium(III) fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.9% metals basis, powder | Same |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (QC donor) | 13709-46-1 | P119204 | Praseodymium(III) fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis, powder | Pr³⁺ typical QC donor (Pr–Yb two-step transfer approach) |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (UC sensitizer / DC acceptor) | 13760-80-0 | Y123600 | Ytterbium fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.9% metals basis | Yb³⁺: UC sensitizer / DC terminal acceptor and ~1000 nm emission center (matched to c-Si) |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (UC sensitizer / DC acceptor) | 13760-80-0 | Y111793 | Ytterbium fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis | Same; higher purity helps reduce quenching and parasitic absorption |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (UC sensitizer / DC acceptor) | 13760-80-0 | Y432011 | Ytterbium(III) fluoride | Granular, ≤1.6 mm | Same; granular form is convenient for solid-state and melt-processing feed |
Rare-earth fluoride precursor (UC sensitizer / DC acceptor) | 13760-80-0 | Y140959 | Ytterbium fluoride dihydrate | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | Suitable for some solution/complexation routes (manage water content carefully) |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 7783-64-4 | Zirconium fluoride | ≥99% metals basis | One of the main components of ZBLAN glass (ZrF₄); key for transparent, low-phonon-energy matrices | |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 7783-64-4 | Zirconium fluoride | ≥99.9% metals basis | Same; more suitable for optical/luminescence systems | |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 7787-32-8 | Barium fluoride | ≥99% | Key component in ZBLAN-type fluoride glasses; low phonon energy and good IR transmission | |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 7787-32-8 | Barium fluoride | ≥99.9% metals basis | Same | |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 7787-32-8 | Barium fluoride | PrimorTrace™, ultra pure grade, ≥99.99% metals basis | Same; optical-grade preferred | |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 7787-32-8 | Barium fluoride | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | Same | |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 13709-38-1 | L171310 | Lanthanum fluoride | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis, 1–5 mm | One of the key ZBLAN components; also a reference host/component for RE fluoride systems |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 13709-38-1 | L102204 | Lanthanum fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis | Same |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 7784-18-1 | Aluminum fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99% | Key ZBLAN component; improves glass-network stability | |
Fluoride glass/ZBLAN component (transparent, low phonon energy) | 7784-18-1 | Aluminum fluoride | Anhydrous, ≥99.9% metals basis | Same | |
Fluoride glass / fluorine-source component (core) | 7681-49-4 | Sodium fluoride | PrimorTrace™, anhydrous, ≥99.99% metals basis, powder | Key component for ZBLAN/fluoride systems; anhydrous high purity supports better process control | |
Low-phonon-energy fluoride material/matrix (core) | 7789-75-5 | Calcium fluoride | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | CaF₂: classic low-phonon, highly transparent fluoride for matrices/windows/composites | |
Barium-source precursor (glass/transparent-layer routes) | 513-77-9 | Barium carbonate | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | BaCO₃: barium source precursor commonly used in glass/optical formulations (paired with fluoride routes) | |
Oxide host (coating/thin-film/ceramic routes) | 1314-36-9 | Y103890 | Yttrium oxide | ≥99.9% metals basis | Common oxide host (stable; film/ceramic compatible) but with higher phonon energy than fluorides |
Oxide host (coating/thin-film/ceramic routes) | 1314-36-9 | Y103888 | Yttrium oxide | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.999% metals basis | Same; higher purity benefits optical/luminescent performance |
Oxide host (coating/thin-film/ceramic routes) | 1314-36-9 | Y103885 | Yttrium oxide | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | Same |
Oxide host (coating/thin-film/ceramic routes) | 1314-36-9 | Y431838 | Yttrium oxide 99+ | For analysis, AR grade, ≥99% | Same; convenient for general R&D |
Oxide host (sputtering target) | 1314-36-9 | Y431837 | Yttrium(III) oxide | ≥99.99% metals basis, sputtering target, diam. × thickness 2.00 in. × 0.25 in. | Sputtering target for Y₂O₃ thin films/functional layers (optical coupling/protective-layer routes) |
Supporting / Optional Product List
This section mainly covers solvents/surface ligands/fluorine sources for RE fluoride nanocrystal synthesis, plus gold/silver precursors and stabilization systems for plasmonic enhancement (Au/Ag precursors, citrate, etc.), and a small number of semiconductor reference materials for device testing (e.g., Si, GaAs).
Only representative catalog numbers are listed here. For additional grades and specifications, please search the Aladdin website by CAS number or refer to the consolidated product list at the end of this article.
Category | CAS No. | Aladdin Cat. No. | Product name | Grade/Purity | Role / key features |
Organic solvent / surface ligand (nanocrystal synthesis) | 112-88-9 | 1-Octadecene | Analytical standard, ≥99.5% (GC) | High-boiling solvent commonly used for UC/RE fluoride nanocrystal synthesis (thermal decomposition/solvothermal) | |
Organic ligand (NaREF₄ nanocrystal synthesis) | 112-80-1 | Oleic acid | Moligand™, ≥99% (HPLC) | Common surface ligand/capping agent affecting size, morphology, and surface quenching | |
Organic ligand (NaREF₄ nanocrystal synthesis) | 112-90-3 | Oleylamine | C18: 80–90% | Coordinating solvent/surface ligand to tune crystal growth and surface states | |
Fluorine source / precursor additive (fluoride formation) | 2923-18-4 | Sodium trifluoroacetate | ≥99% | Common in trifluoroacetate routes for RE fluoride nanocrystals/powders (process support) | |
Stabilizer / complexing agent (metal nanoparticles/colloids) | 6132-04-3 | Sodium citrate dihydrate | ACS, ≥99% (NT) | Common complexing/stabilizing reagent for Au/Ag nanoparticles (plasmonic routes) | |
Stabilizer / complexing agent (metal nanoparticles/colloids) | 6132-04-3 | Sodium citrate dihydrate | 10 mM in Water | Ready-to-use solution for rapid screening and reproducibility control in Au/Ag nanoparticle synthesis | |
Noble-metal precursor (plasmonic enhancement) | 16961-25-4 | Chloroauric acid trihydrate (HAuCl₄·3H₂O) | ≥99.9% metals basis | Au precursor for gold nanostructures (optical coupling studies for UC excitation/emission) | |
Silver precursor (plasmonic enhancement) | 7761-88-8 | S116265 | Silver nitrate (regulated precursor) | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.99% metals basis | Ag precursor for silver nanostructures (ensure regulatory compliance and proper storage/handling) |
Fluoride-system support (solution) | 7681-49-4 | Sodium fluoride solution | 0.5 M in H₂O | Convenient for preparing F⁻-containing solutions (more for solution tests than anhydrous solid synthesis) | |
Semiconductor reference (device testing) | 7440-21-3 | Silicon | Plate, 40×40 mm, thickness 3.0 mm, single crystal, p-type, 100 | Reference material for cell/device testing (not a spectral-conversion material itself) | |
Semiconductor material (device example) | 1303-00-0 | G119227 | Gallium arsenide | PrimorTrace™, ≥99.999% metals basis, pieces | Used in spectral-conversion/UC device demonstrations or comparative studies (not the core spectral-conversion layer material) |
Aladdin: https://www.aladdinsci.com/