Mechanism of Kojic Acid in Reducing Hyperpigmentation: From Tyrosinase Inhibition to Melanin Production Regulation

1 Why Hyperpigmentation Forms

1.1 Melanin Is a Protective Pigment in the Skin

Melanin is not a color deposited on the surface of the skin. Rather, it is a natural pigment synthesized by melanocytes. It is present in the skin, hair, and eyes, where it can absorb and scatter part of ultraviolet radiation and participate in the skin’s defense against photodamage.

When the skin is affected by ultraviolet radiation, inflammation, post-acne irritation, repeated friction, or barrier damage, melanocytes become more active. After melanin is produced in melanosomes, it is transferred to surrounding keratinocytes. As a result, local skin color becomes darker, appearing as sun spots, post-acne marks, uneven skin tone, or post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation.

1.2 Tyrosinase Is a Key Enzyme in Melanin Production

Melanin production occurs inside melanosomes within melanocytes. This process requires the coordinated involvement of substrates, oxygen, enzymes, and a series of oxidation reactions. Among these enzymes, tyrosinase is the most important.

Tyrosinase is encoded by TYR — the tyrosinase gene. It is responsible for key catalytic steps in the early stage of melanin synthesis: it hydroxylates L-tyrosine to L-DOPA and further oxidizes L-DOPA to dopaquinone. After dopaquinone is formed, the pathway can continue toward the production of eumelanin or pheomelanin. Melanin production can be divided into the following four steps:

Step	What Happens	Why It Matters
Step 1	L-tyrosine enters the melanosome as a substrate and can be utilized by tyrosinase.	L-tyrosine is the initial substrate for melanin synthesis.
Step 2	Tyrosinase hydroxylates L-tyrosine to L-DOPA.	This is an important step that initiates melanin synthesis.
Step 3	Tyrosinase further oxidizes L-DOPA to dopaquinone.	Dopaquinone is a key branching point in melanin production.
Step 4	Dopaquinone continues to react, forming eumelanin or pheomelanin.	Eumelanin is brown-black, while pheomelanin is yellow-red.

A more complete reaction pathway can be represented as follows:

L-tyrosine

↓ Tyrosinase participates in the hydroxylation reaction

L-DOPA

↓ Tyrosinase participates in the oxidation reaction

Dopaquinone

├─ With the participation of cysteine → intermediates such as cysteinyldopa → pheomelanin

└─ When cysteine and other thiol donors are relatively limited → the pathway tends to favor indole intermediates such as DHI / DHICA → eumelanin

Among these intermediates, DHI refers to 5,6-dihydroxyindole, and DHICA refers to 5,6-dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic acid. They can undergo further oxidation and polymerization to form brown-black eumelanin. In this reaction chain, tyrosinase is positioned at the very front. When the activity of this upstream enzyme increases, downstream melanin production continues to be promoted. When the activity of this upstream enzyme is inhibited, the production of new melanin decreases.

2 What Is Kojic Acid?

2.1 Source of Kojic Acid

Kojic acid, also known in English as Kojic Acid, has the INCI name Kojic Acid. It is a small-molecule organic compound with the molecular formula C₆H₆O₄. Structurally, it belongs to the class of 4-pyrone compounds.

 

Kojic acid can be produced as a metabolite by various fungi. Common sources include strains from Aspergillus and Penicillium. In industrial production, kojic acid is usually obtained through microbial fermentation, followed by separation, purification, and quality control before being used as a cosmetic ingredient.

2.2 Why Kojic Acid Is Used to Reduce Hyperpigmentation

The core reason kojic acid is used to reduce hyperpigmentation is that it can inhibit tyrosinase activity. Tyrosinase controls key early steps in melanin synthesis. By reducing the catalytic activity of this enzyme, kojic acid decreases dopaquinone formation and thereby reduces subsequent melanin synthesis.

The action of kojic acid can be summarized as follows:

Kojic acid acts on tyrosinase → dopaquinone formation decreases → new melanin synthesis declines → hyperpigmentation gradually becomes less visible

This process takes time. Kojic acid mainly reduces the continued production of new melanin. Pigment that has already formed and entered the epidermal layer still needs to be gradually metabolized as keratinocytes renew. Therefore, kojic-acid-containing products are generally more suitable for consistent, regular, and low-irritation use, rather than for expecting hyperpigmentation to disappear rapidly within a short period.

3 Mechanism by Which Kojic Acid Inhibits Tyrosinase

3.1 Why Tyrosinase Requires Copper Ions

Tyrosinase is a copper-containing metalloenzyme. Its active center contains copper ions, which participate in oxygen binding and substrate oxidation, allowing L-tyrosine and L-DOPA to continue being converted. Tyrosinase can be understood as the “catalytic device” at the front end of the melanin production chain, while copper ions are an important component that maintains the activity of this device. Without a properly functioning copper-ion active center, the catalytic efficiency of tyrosinase decreases.

3.2 How Kojic Acid Reduces Tyrosinase Activity

The kojic acid molecule contains hydroxyl and carbonyl structures, which can chelate copper ions associated with the active center of tyrosinase. After these copper ions are chelated, the catalytic ability of tyrosinase decreases, the conversion of L-tyrosine and L-DOPA toward dopaquinone slows down, and subsequent melanin production is also reduced.

After kojic acid is used:

Kojic acid chelates copper ions associated with the active center of tyrosinase

↓

The catalytic ability of tyrosinase decreases

↓

The conversion of L-tyrosine to L-DOPA and L-DOPA to dopaquinone slows down

↓

New melanin production decreases

3.3 The Antioxidant Activity of Kojic Acid Is an Auxiliary Mechanism

Kojic acid also has a certain degree of antioxidant activity. Ultraviolet radiation and inflammatory reactions can increase oxidative stress in the skin, and oxidative stress can promote signaling related to melanin production. The antioxidant activity of kojic acid may, to some extent, reduce the stimulation of melanin production caused by oxidative stress.

Type of Action	Significance in Reducing Dark Spots
Tyrosinase inhibition	The core mechanism; directly reduces early reactions in melanin synthesis.
Antioxidant activity	An auxiliary mechanism; reduces the promotion of melanin production by oxidative stress.
Anti-inflammatory-related effects	May have auxiliary value, mainly by reducing irritation and the risk of inflammation-related hyperpigmentation; it cannot replace sun protection, barrier repair, or the reduction of inflammatory irritation.

4 Kojic Acid Concentration, Timing of Use, and Packaging Requirements

4.1 Kojic Acid Concentration Should Be Based on Safety Assessment

Kojic acid has appeared in some studies and combination formulations at concentrations of 1%–2%. For example, early melasma studies used combination gel formulations containing 2% kojic acid. However, the concentration used in research formulations does not mean that the same concentration can be generally recommended for daily cosmetic products.

At present, the important basis should be safety assessments and regulatory requirements. The SCCS — Scientific Committee on Consumer Safety — considers kojic acid safe at a maximum concentration of 1% when used as a skin-lightening agent in cosmetic products. The CIR — Cosmetic Ingredient Review — considers kojic acid safe for use in cosmetics at concentrations up to 1%. EU regulations further restrict kojic acid to a maximum concentration of 1% when used as a skin-lightening agent in face and hand products.

Concentration-Related Issue	How to Understand It
1% kojic acid	More consistent with current major safety assessments and EU regulatory limits.
2% kojic acid	Seen in some historical studies or specific combination formulations, but it should not be regarded as a general recommended concentration for ordinary facial skincare products.
High-concentration kojic acid	Not necessarily better; it may increase irritation and stability risks.
Actual effect	Depends on concentration, formulation stability, frequency of use, skin tolerance, and cooperation with sun protection.

4.2 Kojic Acid Is More Suitable for Nighttime Use

Kojic acid is more suitable for nighttime use, mainly due to irritation control and ingredient stability. Kojic acid may cause stinging, redness, dryness, or contact dermatitis. People with sensitive skin, impaired skin barriers, or those currently using acids or retinoid ingredients need to be more cautious. Nighttime use can reduce the combined impact of ultraviolet exposure, sweat, friction, and daytime environmental irritation.

Ultraviolet radiation can reactivate melanin production signals. If sun protection is insufficient during the day, tyrosinase activity may increase again, melanin production may continue to intensify, and the brightening effect of kojic acid may be weakened. Kojic acid does not only work at night, but from the perspectives of stability, tolerance, and coordination with sun protection, nighttime use is more prudent.

4.3 Kojic Acid Products Should Emphasize Light Protection and Sealing

Free kojic acid is relatively sensitive to light, heat, oxidation, metal ions, and formulation pH. When the formulation environment is unsuitable, kojic acid may degrade or discolor, affecting product stability and actual performance. Kojic acid products are better suited to packaging formats that provide light protection, sealing, and reduced air entry, such as amber bottles, light-protective tubes, aluminum tubes, or airless pump packaging. The purpose of packaging design is to reduce the effects of light and oxygen on the active ingredient.

5 How Is Kojic Acid Dipalmitate Different from Kojic Acid?

5.1 Kojic Acid Dipalmitate Is a Lipophilic Derivative of Kojic Acid

Kojic Acid Dipalmitate, commonly abbreviated as KAD, is an esterified derivative of kojic acid with the molecular formula C₃₈H₆₆O₆.

 

It can be understood as a molecule in which two palmitate ester groups are introduced into the kojic acid structure, making the molecule more lipophilic and more suitable for oil phases and cream systems. Compared with free kojic acid, kojic acid dipalmitate is often used in formulation applications to improve solubility, skin feel, and stability.

The advantages of kojic acid dipalmitate lie mainly in formulation compatibility, rather than necessarily being stronger than kojic acid in activity. Free kojic acid can participate more directly in tyrosinase inhibition. As an esterified derivative, the actual effect of kojic acid dipalmitate also depends on its release or conversion efficiency in the skin, the formulation system, and product residence time.

Comparison Item	Kojic Acid	Kojic Acid Dipalmitate
Ingredient attribute	Free kojic acid	Lipophilic esterified derivative of kojic acid
Solubility characteristics	More water-soluble	More lipid-soluble
Directness of action	More directly involved in tyrosinase inhibition	Release or conversion efficiency needs to be considered
Formulation suitability	Suitable for aqueous systems, but requires high stability control	More suitable for oil phases, emulsions, and cream systems
Stability assessment	Easily affected by light, heat, oxidation, metal ions, and pH	Needs to be assessed in relation to the specific formulation system
Efficacy assessment	Clear mechanism with more research support	Actual effect depends on raw material quality, formulation, release, and residence time

6 How to Choose and Use Kojic-Acid-Containing Products

Kojic-acid-containing products are suitable for people with post-sun uneven skin tone, darkened post-acne marks, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, and localized dullness. The key role of kojic acid is to reduce the production of new melanin, rather than immediately eliminating pigment that has already formed. When choosing kojic-acid-containing products, the following aspects can be considered:

Selection Dimension	What to Pay Attention To	How to Understand It
Ingredient form	Whether the product uses free kojic acid or derivatives such as kojic acid dipalmitate	Free kojic acid acts more directly but requires higher stability control; kojic acid dipalmitate is more lipophilic and has better formulation compatibility, but its actual effect depends on release and conversion efficiency.
Use concentration	Whether it complies with current safety assessments and local regulatory requirements	Daily facial kojic acid products should not blindly pursue high concentrations. Current SCCS and CIR assessments both support the safety conclusion that kojic acid may be used in cosmetics at concentrations up to 1%; EU regulations have also limited face and hand products to a maximum of 1%.
Product dosage form and residence time	Prefer leave-on serums, lotions, and creams; be cautious with cleansing products or soaps	Reducing hyperpigmentation with kojic acid depends on sustained contact and regular use. Cleansing products have short residence times and are often affected by surfactant systems and pH, so they are usually less consistent with the action characteristics of kojic acid than leave-on products.
Packaging design	Whether the packaging provides light protection and sealing, and whether it reduces air entry	Free kojic acid is sensitive to light, oxidation, metal ions, and the formulation environment. Amber bottles, light-protective tubes, aluminum tubes, airless pumps, and similar packaging are more helpful in reducing activity loss and discoloration risk.
Formulation stability	Whether pH, antioxidant systems, and metal ion control are considered	Kojic acid formulations need to consider pH, oxidative stability, and the influence of metal ions. Buffer systems, antioxidant systems, chelating agents, and appropriate packaging are often needed to improve stability.
Timing of use	Nighttime use is more prudent, and sun protection is needed during the day	Kojic acid does not only work at night, but nighttime use is more helpful for reducing the combined effects of light exposure and daytime irritation. Sun protection must be used during the day; otherwise, ultraviolet radiation can continue to activate melanin production and weaken the brightening effect.
Skin tolerance	People with sensitive skin, impaired skin barriers, or those using strong active ingredients should reduce frequency or use cautiously	Kojic acid may cause stinging, redness, dryness, or contact dermatitis. When combined with acids, retinoids, or high-concentration brightening ingredients, cumulative irritation should be taken into account.

7 Classification Table of Representative Chemicals Related to Kojic Acid and Hyperpigmentation Reduction

Table 1 Core Kojic Acid Materials and Experimental Products for Melanin Production Mechanism Studies

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Core kojic acid tyrosinase inhibitor	501-30-4	K105452	Kojic Acid	≥99%	Used in experiments for tyrosinase inhibition, reduction of melanin production, mechanistic studies on kojic acid-mediated dark spot reduction, and evaluation of skin-brightening activity.
Lipophilic esterified derivative of kojic acid	79725-98-7	K157731	Kojic Acid Dipalmitate	≥98%	Used in studies of kojic acid derivatives, oil-phase formulation systems, stability evaluation, and development of active brightening formulations for hyperpigmentation reduction.
Enzyme for tyrosinase activity evaluation	9002-10-2	T1508158	Tyrosinase (TYR)	Bioactive, recombinant, ActiBioPure™, high performance, molecular biology grade, EnzymoPure™, ≥500 U/mg enzyme powder; Protein Content ≥90%; expressed in yeast	Used for tyrosinase activity assays, determination of kojic acid inhibition rate, enzyme kinetic analysis, and screening of skin-brightening raw materials.
Initial substrate for melanin synthesis	60-18-4	T1521620	L-Tyrosine	Animal-free, ≥99%, fermentation-derived	Used in studies of the initial reaction of melanin synthesis, tyrosinase substrate models, and research on the upstream inhibitory effect of kojic acid.
Chromogenic substrate for tyrosinase	59-92-7	D111048	L-DOPA / Levodopa	Moligand™, ≥99%	Used in chromogenic assays for tyrosinase activity, dopaquinone formation models, and screening of kojic acid inhibitors.
Thiol-containing amino acid in the pheomelanin pathway	52-90-4	L755721	L-Cysteine	UltraBio™, ≥98.5% (RT)	Used in studies of reactions between dopaquinone and thiol compounds, branching toward pheomelanin formation, and redox reactions.
Indole intermediate in the eumelanin pathway	3131-52-0	D183610	5,6-Dihydroxyindole	≥95%	Used in experiments on eumelanin formation, oxidative polymerization of indole intermediates, and construction of melanin models.
Carboxylated indole intermediate in the eumelanin pathway	4790-08-3	D330878	5,6-Dihydroxyindole-2-carboxylic Acid	≥95%	Used in studies of eumelanin intermediates, melanin polymerization models, and pigment structure analysis.

Table 2 Products for Tyrosinase Inhibition, Melanosome Transfer, and Regulation of Inflammation-Related Hyperpigmentation

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Glycoside-type melanin production inhibitor	497-76-7	A106856	Arbutin	Moligand™, ≥98%	Used for evaluation of tyrosinase-related activity, inhibition of melanin production, and studies of kojic acid combination systems for dark spot reduction.
Butyl-substituted resorcinol active	18979-61-8	B152158	4-Butylresorcinol	≥98% (GC)	Used for tyrosinase inhibition, control of melanin production, and screening of brightening activity in resorcinol derivatives.
Hexyl-substituted resorcinol active	136-77-6	H157402	4-Hexylresorcinol	≥98% (GC)	Used in studies of resorcinol-based pigment regulation, melanin production inhibition, and evaluation of dark spot-reducing activity.
Phenethyl-substituted resorcinol active	85-27-8	A151539	4-(α-Methylbenzyl)resorcinol	≥98%	Used for screening tyrosinase inhibitory activity, research on skin tone-evening formulations, and hyperpigmentation model experiments.
Thiazolyl resorcinol active	1428450-95-6	D665123	N-(4-(2,4-Dihydroxyphenyl)thiazol-2-yl)isobutyramide	≥98%	Used in studies on targeted tyrosinase inhibition, melanin production regulation, and mechanisms of dark spot-reducing efficacy.
Dicarboxylic acid hyperpigmentation regulator	123-99-9	A108439	Azelaic Acid	Moligand™, ≥99%	Used in studies of acne-related discoloration, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, regulation of keratinization, and combination research for dark spot reduction.
Water-soluble azelaic acid derivative	477773-67-4	P963032	Potassium Azeloyl Diglycinate	≥99%	Used in aqueous skin tone-evening formulations, sebum condition regulation, care for inflammation-related hyperpigmentation, and studies of azelaic acid derivatives.
Melanosome transfer regulator	98-92-0	N434628	Niacinamide	PharmPure™, USP	Used in studies of melanosome transfer regulation, skin barrier-related research, skin tone evening, and kojic acid synergistic brightening formulations.
Pigmentation regulator related to the plasmin pathway	1197-18-8	A111900	Tranexamic Acid (TXA)	Moligand™, ≥98%	Used in studies of melasma-related mechanisms, post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, UV-induced pigmentation responses, and synergistic dark spot-reducing research.
Glycyrrhizinate soothing regulator	68797-35-3	G133556	Dipotassium Glycyrrhizinate Hydrate	≥75% (HPLC)	Used in soothing and anti-inflammatory research, reduction of irritation responses, management of post-inflammatory hyperpigmentation, and tolerance studies for brightening formulations.

Table 3 Products for Antioxidation, Keratinocyte Renewal, and Kojic Acid Formulation Stability

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Water-soluble reduced antioxidant	50-81-7	L432793	L-Ascorbic Acid	Anhydrous grade, Moligand™, ACS, ≥99%	Used for oxidative stress control, studies of melanin oxidation reactions, and antioxidant synergistic formulations for kojic acid-based dark spot reduction.
Lipophilic ascorbate ester	183476-82-6	A1519829	Ascorbyl Tetraisopalmitate	Cosmetic grade, ≥90%	Used in oil-phase antioxidant systems, skin-brightening formulations, and combination research involving lipophilic active ingredients.
Ethylated ascorbic acid derivative	86404-04-8	O159940	3-O-Ethyl-L-Ascorbic Acid	Moligand™, ≥98% (HPLC) (T)	Used in stable antioxidant formulations, melanin production regulation, and kojic acid synergistic brightening research.
Magnesium salt of ascorbyl phosphate	113170-55-1	S160999	L-Ascorbic Acid 2-Phosphate Sesquimagnesium Salt Hydrate	Moligand™, ≥98% (HPLC)	Used in mild antioxidant systems, skin tone-evening formulations, and efficacy evaluation of ascorbic acid derivatives.
Glycoside-type ascorbic acid derivative	129499-78-1	O160006	2-O-α-D-Glucopyranosyl-L-Ascorbic Acid	≥98% (HPLC)	Used in aqueous antioxidant systems, brightening formulations, kojic acid combinations, and studies of stable vitamin-based actives.
Sodium salt of ascorbyl phosphate	66170-10-3	S304311	L-Ascorbic Acid 2-Phosphate Trisodium Salt	≥96%	Used in water-soluble antioxidant formulations, skin tone care for acne-prone skin, and melanin-related experimental studies.
Thiol-containing tripeptide antioxidant	70-18-8	G774620	Glutathione, Reduced	PharmPure™, European Pharmacopoeia (Ph. Eur.)	Used in studies of redox balance, thiol antioxidant models, melanin pathway regulation, and synergistic brightening research.
Phenolic acid antioxidant	1135-24-6	F103701	Ferulic Acid	Moligand™, ≥99%	Used in studies of UV-induced oxidative stress, construction of antioxidant systems, and stability evaluation of brightening formulations.
Trans phenolic acid antioxidant	537-98-4	F111083	trans-Ferulic Acid	≥99%	Used for antioxidant activity evaluation, photodamage-related oxidation reactions, and combination research with vitamin-based active ingredients.
Small-molecule α-hydroxy acid	79-14-1	G104191	Glycolic Acid	≥98%	Used in keratinocyte renewal, support of epidermal pigment metabolism, acid peeling, and dark spot-reducing combination research.
Moisturizing α-hydroxy acid	50-21-5	L108839	DL-Lactic Acid	AR, 85–90%	Used in keratinocyte renewal, pH adjustment, moisturizing acid systems, and skin tone-evening formulation research.
Aromatic α-hydroxy acid	90-64-2	M104996	DL-Mandelic Acid	AR, ≥99%	Used in mild keratinocyte renewal, care for acne-related discoloration, aromatic acid formulations, and combination research.
Lipophilic β-hydroxy acid	69-72-7	S433340	Salicylic Acid	UltraBio™, ultrapure grade, ≥99%	Used in regulation of sebum-related keratinization, care for acne-related discoloration, pore keratin status research, and acid combination systems.
Metal ion-chelating stabilizer	139-33-3	D684233	Disodium Ethylenediaminetetraacetate	≥99%	Used for metal ion control, studies of kojic acid discoloration risk, aqueous formulation stability, and evaluation of chelating systems.
Citrate buffer agent	68-04-2	T774745	Trisodium Citrate	Anhydrous grade, USP	Used in buffer system construction, pH control for kojic acid formulations, aqueous stability, and auxiliary chelation research.
Organic acid pH adjuster	77-92-9	C755557	Anhydrous Citric Acid Powder	Anhydrous grade, UltraBio™, ≥99.5% (T)	Used for pH adjustment, citrate buffer systems, and stability research on aqueous kojic acid formulations.

Table 4 Products for UV Protection and Studies of Light-Induced Hyperpigmentation

Category	CAS No.	Aladdin Catalog No.	Name	Specification or Purity	Product Features and Applications
Inorganic UV shielding material	13463-67-7	T431947	Titanium Dioxide (IV)	Premium grade, ≥99%	Used in UV shielding, photoprotection systems, control of UV-induced melanin production conditions, and sunscreen formulation research.
Inorganic broad-spectrum photoprotective material	1314-13-2	Z431819	Zinc Oxide	Reagent grade, high purity, ≥99.9% metals basis, powder, <5 μm	Used in UV protection, inorganic sunscreen systems, photoprotective formulations for sensitive skin, and prevention of hyperpigmentation.
Dibenzoylmethane-type UVA absorber	70356-09-1	M102210	1-(4-tert-Butylphenyl)-3-(4-methoxyphenyl)propane-1,3-dione	≥98%	Used in UVA absorption, photostability evaluation, sunscreen systems, and studies of UV-induced hyperpigmentation.
Benzotriazole-type particulate UV absorber	103597-45-1	M158087	2,2'-Methylenebis[6-(benzotriazol-2-yl)-4-tert-octylphenol]	≥98%	Used in broad-spectrum UV protection, particulate sunscreen systems, synergistic light scattering and absorption, and prevention of hyperpigmentation.
Benzophenone-type UVA absorber	302776-68-7	H588640	Hexyl 2-[4-(Diethylamino)-2-hydroxybenzoyl]benzoate (DHHB)	≥98%	Used in UVA absorption, sunscreen system stability, photoaging control, and synergistic care for dark spot reduction.
Triazine-type UVB absorber	88122-99-0	E334849	Ethylhexyl Triazone	≥98%	Used in UVB absorption, sunscreen formulations, evaluation of UV protection strength, and prevention of hyperpigmentation.
Triazine-type broad-spectrum UV absorber	187393-00-6	B305266	Bis-Ethylhexyloxyphenol Methoxyphenyl Triazine	≥98%	Used in broad-spectrum UV absorption, photostable sunscreen systems, and protection research related to UV-induced melanin production.
Cyanoacrylate-type UV absorber	6197-30-4	E108021	2-Ethylhexyl 2-Cyano-3,3-diphenylacrylate	≥97%	Used in UV absorption, photostable formulations, sunscreen system combinations, and research related to hyperpigmentation prevention.

Note: The products listed in the tables are mainly intended for scientific research, in vitro evaluation, or formulation research reference. Whether they can be used in cosmetic manufacturing should be confirmed based on the regulations of the sales region, raw material grade, COA, impurity control, restricted-use requirements, and finished-product safety assessment. For more information on product specifications, grades, and COA details, search by “product name / CAS / catalog number” on the Aladdin official website.

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